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. 2023 Dec 20;9(1):52–66. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.3c06696

Table 2. Summary of Electroactive Materials and Devices Used for Immunomodulation.

electroactive materials/devices ES mechanism electrical parameters immune cell model effect on immune cells applications ref
GelMA–PPy hydrogel electrical conductivity conductivity: 1.3 × 10–4 S/cm RAW 264.7 macrophages M2 polarization osteogenesis (61)
BaTiO3/PLLA nanofibers piezoelectric output voltage: 50.33 mV RAW 264.7 macrophages M2 polarization osteogenesis (66)
BaTiO3/β-TCP ceramics piezoelectric output voltage: 590 mV; current: 300 nA RAW 264.7 macrophages M2 polarization osteogenesis (69)
bioinspired PHBV/PHA/PBT polymer matrix piezoelectric output voltage: 11.2 V; current: 4.3 μA RAW 264.7 macrophages M2 polarization osteogenesis (71)
MXene/silk fibroin nanocomposite piezoelectric output voltage: 100 mV RAW 264.7 macrophages M2 polarization osteogenesis (82)
BaTiO3/Ti6Al4V scaffold piezoelectric/ultrasound current: 6.7 μA RAW 264.7 macrophages M2 polarization osteogenesis (83)
P(VDF–TrFE) film piezoelectric output voltage: 500–1500 mV BMDMs M2 polarization osteogenesis (87)
TiO2 nanotubes–PVDF piezoelectric output voltage: 2 V; current: 10 nA RAW 264.7 macrophages M2 polarization, phagocytosis osteogenesis (97)
GDFE hydrogel electrical conductivity conductivity: 4 × 10–4 S/cm RAW 264.7 macrophages M2 polarization wound healing (63)
P(VDF–TrFE) piezoelectric output voltage: 2.3 V BMDMs M2 polarization wound healing (80)
BaTiO3 nanorobots piezoelectric/ultrasound output voltage: 35 mV RAW 264.7 macrophages M2 polarization, phagocytosis rheumatoid arthritis (86)
Fe/BiOCl NSs piezoelectric output voltage: 23.7 mV mouse primary macrophages M2 polarization, phagocytosis rheumatoid arthritis (85)
β-PVDF film piezoelectric/ultrasound output voltage: 10–100 mV THP-1 M1 polarization cancer therapy (88)
Cu/PET/PTFE triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) output voltage: 4 V; current: 28 nA THP-1 M2 polarization wound healing (90)
Bi2Fe4O9 nanosheets pyroelectric output voltage: 7 mV; current: 7 μA J774A.1 macrophages M1 polarization cancer therapy (71)