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. 2024 Jan 16;29:13. doi: 10.1186/s11658-023-00528-8

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — TRIM protein-mediated autophagy is involved in regulating immunity against various bacteria and viruses. a Autophagy involves the initiation of phagophores regulated by ULK1. Class III phosphatidylinositol kinases, the ULK1-BECN1 complex, and MTOR kinase regulate the initiation of autophagy and the formation of phagophores. MTOR activity is regulated by PRKAA2, PIK3CA-AKT1 signaling, and MAPK3/MAPK1 signaling. The phagophores mature into autophagosomes and fuse with lysosomes to form autolysosomes. TRIM proteins target bacteria and viruses to autophagosomes to degrade and activate innate immune signaling. b TRIM proteins activate inflammasome complexes and convert pro-CASP1 to active CASP1, producing the proinflammatory cytokines IL1B and IL18. c TRIMs regulate the KEAP1-SQSTM1-ZNRF2 signaling axis and ZNFR2-mediated transcription. TRIM proteins also regulate IFN and NFKB signaling cascades to induce the production of proinflammatory cytokines. TRIM; Tripartite motif containing, ULK1; Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1, BECN1; Beclin 1, MTOR; Mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase, PRKAA2; Protein kinase AMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha 2, PIK3CA; Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha, MAPK3/1; Mitogen-activated protein kinase 3/1, CASP; Caspase, IL1B; Interleukin 1 beta, IL18; Interleukin 18, KEAP1; Kelch like ECH associated protein 1, SQSTM1; Sequestome 1, ZNRF2; Zinc and ring finger 2, IFN; Interferon, NFKB; Nuclear factor kappa B, AKT1; AKT serine/threonine kinase 1, S. typhi; Salmonella typhi, M. tb; Mycobacterium tuberculosis, IAV; Influenza A virus, HSV1; Herpes simplex virus 1, EMCV; Encephalomyocarditis virus, HIV-1; Human immune deficiency virus, E71, Enterovirus 71, NLRP1; NLR family pyrin domain containing 1, NLRP3; NLR family pyrin domain containing 3, AIM2; Absent in melanoma 2, CASP1; Caspase 1, TLR; Toll-like receptor, RIGI; RNA sensor RIG-I, IFIH1; Interferon induced with helicase C domain 1, IKBKB; Inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa B kinase subunit beta, IRF3; Interferon regulatory factor 3, IRF8; Interferon regulatory factor 8