FIGURE 1.

Exercise improves the prognoses of patients with NDs through multiple mechanisms. As aging progresses, there is a conspicuous escalation in the susceptibility to NDs. Physical exercise enhances synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis, epigenetic modifications, and central cerebral blood flow, and mitigates neurodegenerative risk factors linked to age-related glial cell activation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction via modulation of both classical and neglected myokines. BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor-1; CTSB, cathepsin B; FNDC5, fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5; IL-6, interleukin 6.