Table 1.

Specific pathogenic or commensal microorganisms and microbial metabolites regulating mucus [25]

Microorganism or metabolite class	Specific microorganism or metabolite	Effect on mucins or mucus	Citations
Pathogenic	Vibrio cholerae Giardia lamblia Entamoeba histolytica Trichuris muris	Induce mucins degradation	[111, 112]
	Listeria monocytogenes Entamoeba histolytica Nippostrongylus brasiliensis Trichinella spiralis	Inhibit mucus production Regulate Goblet cell function Regulate mucin expression	[113, 114]
Commensals	Lactobacillus spp.	Stimulate MUC3 expression and MUC2 production and secretion	[115]
	Bifidobacterium longum	Restore mucus growth	[116]
	Lactobacillus reuteri	Increase mucus layer thickness	[117]
	Akkermansia muciniphila	Restore/increase mucus layer thickness Increase Goblet cell number	[34]
Microbial metabolites	Short chain fatty acids: acetate and butyrate	Stimulate MUC2 expression Increase mucus production Increase mucus secretion	[118]

Modified from Paone P, Cani PD. Mucus barrier, mucins and gut microbiota: the expected slimy partners? Gut. 2020;69(12):2232–2243

MUC mucins