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. 2023 Oct 5;63(1):135–144. doi: 10.1007/s00394-023-03245-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Proportion of participants who consumed each of the 10 Food Group Indicators (FGIs)^† across quintiles of energy contribution of ultra-processed foods^¥. Australian population aged 2+ years (NNPAS 2011–2012) (n = 11,862). Notes: NNPAS National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. ^†p value of linear trend < 0.001 across quintiles using regression models adjusted for age, sex, educational attainment, socio-economic status, income and geographical location was observed for all food groups, except dairy (p = 0.09) and eggs (p = 0.01). ^¥Percentage of total energy intake from ultra-processed foods. Mean (43.69 ± 0.21); quintiles mean and range: Q1 = 20.26 (0 to 28.72); Q2 = 34.08 (28.73 to 38.79); Q3 = 43.22 (38.80 to 47.76); Q4 = 52.59 (47.76 to 58.12); Q5 = 68.33 (58.12 to 100)