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. 2024 Jan 9;11:1332205. doi: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1332205

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Copyright © 2024 Zhang, Liu, Li, Li, Zhang, Liu, Wang and Sun.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Structure and structural domains of Gal-9 and their biological functions associated with different receptors. Gal-9 has been found in three natural Gal-9 isoforms with different interdomain linker lengths (long, medium and short). In addition, a recombinant form of Gal-9 with a linker length of two amino acids has been produced. In addition, the receptors for Gal-9 are complex and diverse: lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP2), TNF receptor superfamily member CD137, CD44 adhesion molecule, CD40, macrophage marker CD206, protein disulfide bond isomerase (PDI) involved in T cell migration, immune receptors PD-1, TIM-3 and VISTA, Dectin-1, which are clinically relevant, in addition to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 4-1BB, which is associated with inflammatory responses.