TABLE 1.
Role of Gal-9 in various cancers.
| Tumor type | Expression | Experiment type | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| AML | Gal-9 is upregulated in human AML cells | In vitro | Goncalves Silva et al. (2017) |
| Gal-9 is upregulated in patients with who have failed chemotherapy | Review, Clinical trial | Dama et al. (2019) | |
| Gal-9 induces apoptosis of VISTA-expressing T cells | In vitro | Yasinska et al. (2020) | |
| High expression of Gal-9 is associated with a poor prognosis | In vitro, Clinical trial | Asayama et al. (2017) | |
| CLL | Gal-9 is highly expressed in patients with CLL | Clinical trial | Pang et al. (2021) |
| Gal-9 expression more pronounced in patients with advanced CLL than those in early stages | Clinical trial | Pang et al. (2021) | |
| High expression of Gal-9 promotes Treg cell proliferation and differentiation | Clinical trial | Pang et al. (2021) | |
| Inhibition of Gal-9 preserves CD26+CD8+ T cells | Review | Zheng et al. (2019) | |
| ALL | Adipocytes-mediated Gal-9 can be upregulated in B-ALL | In vitro | Lee et al. (2022) |
| Malignant melanoma | Gal-9 can induce apoptosis in malignant melanoma cells | In vitro | Wiersma et al. (2012) |
| Gal-9 is highly expressed in melanoma cell nevi and primary melanoma lesions | In vitro | Kageshita et al. (2002) | |
| Gal-9 is not or rarely expressed in metastatic melanoma lesions | In vitro | Kageshita et al. (2002) | |
| Ectopic expression of Gal-9 can inhibit Gal-9-deficient melanoma cell metastasis | In vivo | Nobumoto et al. (2008) | |
| The expression of Gal-9 in melanoma is positively correlated with an increase in the number of CD206+ macrophages, promoting tumor growth | In vitro | Enninga et al. (2018) | |
| Gal-9+ and PD-L1+ were co-expressed in the CCR + melanoma cell subpopulation to promote tumor metastasis | In vitro, Clinical trial | Cristiani et al. (2019) | |
| Gal-9+ dendritic cells/dendritic cell-like macrophages are parameters for higher survival rates in advanced melanoma | Clinical trial | Melief et al. (2017) | |
| Cervical cancer | Gal-9 is highly expressed in the nucleus and cytoplasm of cervical cancer cells | Clinical trial | Curley et al. (2020) |
| Gal-9 is expressed in all immune cells of cervical cancer cells and in aggressive and intraepithelial tumors | Clinical trial | Curley et al. (2020) | |
| Colon cancer | Exogenous rLGALS9 triggers the death of colorectal cancer cells with refractory KRAS gene mutations by mediating clathrin- and PRKC (protein kinase C)-, RAF1-, and MAP2K1- | In vitro, In vivo | Wiersma et al. (2015) |
| Gal-9 expression is elevated in colorectal cancer | In vitro, Clinical trial | Sasidharan Nair et al. (2018), Blair et al. (2021) | |
| Gal-9 can inhibit the proliferation of human colon cancer cells by inducing apoptosis | In vitro, In vivo | Morishita et al. (2021) | |
| The upregulation of Gal-9 in colorectal cancer can lead to its immune evasion | In vitro | Sasidharan Nair et al. (2018) | |
| Breast cancer | Gal-9 on the surface of breast cancer cells can be translocated by FLRT3/LPHN/TIM-3/Gal-9 | In vitro | Yasinska et al. (2019) |
| The high expression of Gal-9 in breast cancer can inhibit breast cancer metastasis | In vitro, Clinical trial | Irie et al. (2005), Yamauchi et al. (2006) | |
| High expression of Gal-9 in breast cancer epithelial cells enhances the early aggressiveness of breast cancer | In vitro, Clinical trial | Pally et al. (2022) | |
| The expression of Gal-9 and TIM-3 is associated with a favorable prognosis for triple-negative breast cancer | Clinical trial | Yoshikawa et al. (2022) | |
| Gal-9 is upregulated under cytotoxic drug intervention in triple-negative breast cancer | In vitro | Yoon et al. (2018) | |
| Lung cancer | Gal-9 is expressed on all non-small cell lung cancer cells and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes | Clinical trial | He et al. (2019) |
| The expression of Gal-9 is elevated in lung cancer, and the expression level is significantly different from that of the healthy group | Clinical trial | Blair et al. (2021) | |
| Gal-9 is expressed more in stage I and IV lung cancer than in stage II and III | Clinical trial | ||
| Gal-9 expression is more frequent in women than in men | Clinical trial | ||
| Gal-9 expression higher in patients who are smokers than in non-smokers | Clinical trial | ||
| Hepatocarcinoma | Patients with high expression of Gal-9 in hepatocellular carcinoma have a better prognosis | Clinical trial | Gu et al. (2013) |
| Gal-9 in hepatocellular carcinoma has different levels of expression in antigen-presenting cell subsets | In vitro, Clinical trial | Li et al. (2012) | |
| The downregulation of Gal-9 within hepatocellular carcinoma cells is associated with tumor growth, tumor migration, invasion, metastasis, postoperative recurrence, and poor prognosis | Review | Bacigalupo et al. (2013) | |
| Low expression of Gal-9 is associated with a poorer prognosis in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma | Clinical trial | An et al. (2021) | |
| Gastric cancer | The expression of Gal-9 in patients with gastric cancer is associated with clinical stage, tumor pathological stage, tumor cell differentiation, lymph node metastasis, and survival | Clinical trial | Yang et al. (2014) |
| Gal-9 is highly expressed in gastric cancer cells | Clinical trial | Wang et al. (2018) | |
| The expression of Gal-9 and TIM-3 negatively correlated with the overall survival rate of patients | Clinical trial | Wang et al. (2018) | |
| Gal-9 inhibits gastric cancer cell invasion, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transformation under the regulation of PPARγ | In vitro, In vivo | Cho et al. (2015) | |
| WEE1 inhibitors in HER2-positive gastric cancer downregulated Gal-9 expression to improve trastuzumab resistance | In vitro, In vivo | Jin et al. (2021) | |
| Low expression of Gal-9 is significantly associated with the prognosis of gastric cancer patients | Review | Long et al. (2018) | |
| Glioblastoma | Gal-9 is highly expressed in the brain tissue of glioma patients | Clinical trial | Yuan et al. (2020) |
| High expression of Gal-9 negatively correlated with overall survival | Clinical trial | Yuan et al. (2020) |