Table 2.
Estimated Marital Status Differences in Pandemic Loneliness Outcomes (N = 2861)
| A. Loneliness during pandemic (ordinal logit) |
B. Change in loneliness before vs. during the pandemic (multinomial logit) |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 1 |
Model 2 |
Model 3 |
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| Less often | More often | Less often | More often | Less often | More often | ||||
| OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | RRR (95% CI) | RRR (95% CI) | RRR (95% CI) | RRR (95% CI) | RRR (95% CI) | RRR (95% CI) | |
|
| |||||||||
| Marital status (ref: married or cohabiting) | |||||||||
| Divorced | 1.61*** (1.23–2.10) | 1.62*** (1.25–2.10) | 1.92** (1.26–2.91) | 1.77 (0.72–1.37) | 1.45* (1.04–2.02) | 1.77 (0.76–4.09) | 1.46* (1.04–2.06) | 1.46 (0.45–1.64) | 1.18 (0.56–2.50) |
| Widowed | 1.69*** (1.37–2.08) | 1.74*** (1.40–2.16) | 2.21*** (1.46–3.33) | 1.27 (0.62–2.57) | 1.03 (0.75–1.42) | 1.29 (0.64–2.61) | 1.08 0.78–1.49) | 0.66 (0.18–2.35) | 1.33 (0.71–2.49) |
| Women | 1.78*** (1.48–2.15) | 1.69*** (1.38–2.07) | 1.89*** (1.50–2.38) | 1.23 (0.64–2.38) | 1.98*** (1.499–2.62) | 1.24 (0.62–2.45) | 1.77*** (1.31–2.39) | 0.97 (0.38–2.52) | 1.76** (1.19–2.61) |
| Change in participation (ref: ongoing participation) | |||||||||
| Worked for pay | |||||||||
| Never participated | 1.25 (0.94–1.67) | 1.25 (0.94–1.66) | 0.26** (0.10–0.68) | 1.38 (0.89–2.14) | 0.27** (0.10–0.71) | 1.38 (0.89–2.15) | |||
| Stopped participating | 1.40 (0.89–2.20) | 1.39 (0.89–2.19) | 0.77 (0.22–2.70) | 1.47 (0.76–2.83) | 0.78 (0.23–2.67) | 1.49 (0.78–2.86) | |||
| Started participating | 0.88 (0.41–1.92) | 0.85 (0.38–1.89) | 1.09 (0.20–5.79) | 0.30 (0.06–1.56) | 1.15 (0.21–6.18) | 0.31 (0.06–1.60) | |||
| Volunteered | |||||||||
| Never participated | 1.24 (0.96–1.61) | 1.23 (0.96–1.60) | 0.70 (0.27–1.86) | 1.35 (0.82–2.23) | 0.72 (0.27–1.93) | 1.35 (0.81–2.23) | |||
| Stopped Participating | 1.29 (0.89–1.88) | 1.30 (0.89–1.88) | 0.59 (0.16–2.18) | 1.51 (0.87–2.63) | 0.60 (0.16–2.20) | 1.51 (0.87–2.63) | |||
| Started Participating | 0.85 (0.45–1.61) | 0.85 (0.45–1.61) | 0.32 (0.04–2.84) | 1.54 (0.57–1.17) | 0.33 (0.04–2.83) | 1.56 (0.58–1.22) | |||
| Attended religious services | |||||||||
| Never participated | 0.99 (0.79–1.24) | 0.99 (0.79–1.24) | 0.96 (0.47–1.98) | 0.93 (0.68–1.27) | 0.96 (0.47–1.97) | 0.93 (0.68–1.28) | |||
| Stopped participating | 1.04 (0.78–1.40) | 1.04 (0.78–1.40) | 0.92 (0.36–2.37) | 0.83 (0.58–1.18) | 0.92 (0.36–2.31) | 0.82 (0.57–1.18) | |||
| Started participating | 1.21 (0.63–2.31) | 1.21 (0.63–2.33) | 1.39 (0.26–7.56) | 1.03 (0.48–2.21) | 1.37 (0.25–7.34) | 1.03 (0.48–2.21) | |||
| Attended clubs or other activities | |||||||||
| Never participated | 0.91 (0.65–1.28) | 0.91 (0.65–1.28) | 1.62 (0.49–5.38) | 0.63* (0.40–0.98) | 1.63 (0.49–5.40) | 0.63* (0.40–0.99) | |||
| Stopped participating | 0.86 (0.63–1.16) | 0.85 (0.63–1.15) | 3.00 (0.95–9.45) | 0.69 (0.46–1.01) | 3.02 (0.96–9.53) | 0.68 (0.46–1.01) | |||
| Started participating | 0.85 (0.42–1.74) | 0.86 (0.42–1.76) | 1.21 (0.14–10.41) | 0.61 (0.25–1.49) | 1.18 (0.14–10.03) | 0.61 (0.25–1.50) | |||
| Change in contact frequency (ref: no change) | |||||||||
| Phone calls | |||||||||
| Contact increased | 1.00 (0.69–1.45) | 1.01 (0.69–1.46) | 0.50 (0.16–1.59) | 0.70 (0.44–1.13) | 0.51 (0.16–1.60) | 0.70 (0.44–1.12) | |||
| Contact decreased | 1.09 (0.85–1.42) | 1.09 (0.84–1.41) | 0.84 (0.39–1.83) | 1.21 (0.85–1.73) | 0.85 (0.39–1.85) | 1.21 (0.85–1.73) | |||
| Emails/texts/messages | |||||||||
| Contact increased | 1.23 (0.83–1.83) | 1.22 (0.82–1.81) | 2.11 (0.69–6.43) | 1.32 (0.76–2.31) | 2.11 (0.70–6.37) | 1.33 (0.77–2.30) | |||
| Contact decreased | 1.08 (0.82–1.42) | 1.07 (0.81–1.41) | 2.00 (0.97–1.11) | 0.88 (0.63–1.24) | 2.02 (0.98–.19) | 0.88 (0.63–1.24) | |||
| Video calls | |||||||||
| Contact increased | 1.18 (0.88–1.57) | 1.17 (0.88–1.56) | 0.77 (0.28–2.12) | 1.47 (1.00–2.21) | 0.79 (0.29–2.15) | (0.98–2.21) | |||
| Contact decreased | 1.39 (1.00–1.94) | 1.41* (1.02–1.97) | 1.81 (0.83–3.95) | 1.14 (0.71–1.84) | 1.77 (0.81–3.88) | (0.71–1.84) | |||
| In-person visits | |||||||||
| Contact increased | 1.00 (0.70–1.45) | 1.01 (0.70–1.45) | 0.94 (0.30–3.00) | 1.09 (0.58–2.06) | 0.94 (0.30–2.95) | 1.09 (0.58–2.07) | |||
| Contact decreased | 1.27* (1.03–1.56) | 1.27* (1.04–1.564) | 0.95 (0.54–1.69) | 195*** (1.49–2.56) | 0.95 (0.54–1.67) | 1 95*** (1.49–2.57) | |||
| Gender interactions | |||||||||
| Divorced X women | 0.75 (0.41–1.37) | 1.45 (0.29–7.20) | (0.54–3.33) | ||||||
| Widowed X women | 0.71 (0.42–1.18) | 2.46 (0.51–11.90) | (0.37–1.63) | ||||||
All models controlled for demographic covariates, self-rated physical health in 2019, and depression in 2019.
Base category for Panel B is “about the same”
***
p < .001
**
p < .01
*
p < .05; OR: Odds Ratios; RRR: Relative Risk Ratios.