Table 4.

KHB Analysis for Pandemic Loneliness Outcomes

	A. Loneliness during the pandemic (ordinal logit)		B. Change in loneliness before vs. during the pandemic (multinomial logit)
	Divorced	Widowed	Less often		More often
			Divorced	Widowed	Divorced	Widowed
Change in participation (ref: ongoing participation)
Worked for pay
Total effects	0.37**	0.39	0.12	− 0.30	0.22	− 0.18
Direct effects	0.37**	0.38***	0.10	− 0.31	0.23	− 0.18
Indirect effects	− 0.00	0.00	0.03	0.01	− 0.01	− 0.00
Volunteered
Total effects	0.37**	0.39***	0.10	− 0.32	0.23	− 0.17
Direct effects	0.37**	0.38***	0.10	− 0.31	0.23	− 0.18
Indirect effects	− 0.00	0.01	− 0.00	− 0.01	− 0.00	0.01
Attended religious services
Total effects	0.37**	0.38***	0.14	− 0.31	0.22	− 0.18
Direct effects	0.37**	0.38***	0.10	− 0.31	0.23	− 0.18
Indirect effects	− 0.01	− 0.00	0.04	0.01	− 0.01	− 0.00
Attended clubs or other activities
Total effects	0.37**	0.39***	0.08	− 0.24	0.21	− 0.17
Direct effects	0.37**	0.38***	0.10	− 0.31	0.23	− 0.18
Indirect effects	− 0.00	0.00	− 0.02	0.07	− 0.02	0.01
Change in contact frequency (ref: no change)
Phone calls
Total effects	0.37**	0.48***	− 0.12	− 0.38	0.32	− 0.02
Direct effects	0.37**	0.49***	− 0.13	− 0.38	0.32	− 0.02
Indirect effects	− 0.00	− 0.00	0.00	− 0.00	0.00	− 0.00
Emails/texts/messages contact/social media
Total effects	0.38**	0.49***	− 0.11	− 0.39	0.33*	− 0.02
Direct effects	0.37**	0.49***	− 0.13	− 0.38	0.32	− 0.02
Indirect effects	0.01	0.00	0.01	− 0.02	0.01	0.01
Video calls
Total effects	0.37**	0.48***	− 0.13	− 0.37	0.31	− 0.04
Direct effects	0.37**	0.49***	− 0.13	− 0.38	0.32	− 0.02
Indirect effects	− 0.00	− 0.00	0.00	0.01	− 0.01	− 0.01
In-person visits
Total effects	0.37**	0.48***	− 0.13	− 0.37	0.32	− 0.04
Direct effects	0.37**	0.49***	− 0.13	− 0.38	0.32	− 0.02
Indirect effects	0.00	− 0.00	− 0.00	0.00	0.00	− 0.02

^***p < .001

^**p < .01

^*p < .05. Analytic samples are unweighted. Marital status reference group is “married.”