Fig. 12.

Current advances of cartilage organoids for treating injured cartilage. (A) Schematic of cartilage organoid formation and the effect of hydrogel elasticity and viscoelasticity on tissue in organoid fusion, cell proliferation, cell death, matrix production, anabolic genes, and catabolic genes. Reproduced with permission [206]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (B) The diagram shows how building blocks are assembled into zonal constructs. The first step involves creating a hierarchical micromodule implant of chondrocytes derived from human periosteum-derived cells (HPDCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs). The second step shows a diagrammatic representation of how building blocks are assembled into tri-layered constructs. Reproduced with permission [207]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (C) Schematic illustration of created chondral defects in the femoral trochlear ridge of the right knee joints of cynomolgus monkeys to establish a primate model for CyiPS-Cart transplantation. The transplanted either CyiPS-Cart or nothing into the defects and observed the gross appearance of the joint surface 4 weeks and 17 weeks after surgery. Reproduced with permission [208]. Copyright 2023, Springer Nature.