Fig. 1.

Betaine attenuated cognitive impairment and brain injury induced by Hcy. (A) Schematic outline of the experimental design. (B–C) Schematic diagram of the Y maze test and NOR test. (D) Heat maps of the Y maze test. (E) Impacts of different groups on time in the novel arm (n = 8). (F) The percentage of movement distance in the novel arm (n = 8). (G) The heat maps of the NOR test. (H) The exploration time for the familiar and novel objects in the NOR test (n = 8). (I) The discrimination index analysis in the NOR test (n = 8). (J) Representative Nissl staining of hippocampus CA1, CA3 and DG area in different groups (n = 4). Representative photomicrographs were shown at 40× magnification, scale bar = 50 or 10 μm. (K) Representative H&E staining of the hippocampal regions in different groups (n = 4), scale bar = 50 or 10 μm, 40× magnification. (L–O) ELISA analysis of S-100β, NSE, IL-1β and IL-18 levels in the serum among three groups (n = 4). Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance followed by multiple comparisons or two-tailed paired t-test. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.