Table 1.

Gender differences in the diagnosis of BPD.

Authors	Study design	States	Sample characteristics	Outcomes
Boggs et al. (2005) (27)	Longitudinal Study (Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study)	United States	N = 668 individuals ♀ 64% ♂ 36%	BPD criteria, except for impulsivity, tended to underestimate the level of global functioning in ♀ as compared to ♂
Henry and Cohen (1983) (14)	Cross sectional	United States	N = 277 undergraduate and graduate students ♀ 197 ♂ 80	Healthy ♂ > healthy ♀ (BPD characteristics)
Hoertel et al. (2014) (45)	Epidemiologic survey Second wave of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC)	United States	N = 34.653 subjects ♀ 19,984 ♂ 14,497	♀ < ♂ impulsivity at lower degree of borderline personality disorder severity ♀ > ♂affective instability, self-mutilating behavios/suicidality and chronic feelings of emptiness.
Jane et al. (2007) (38)	Cross sectional study	United States	N = 599 subjects ♀ 284 ♂ 315	None of the BPD criteria demonstrated gender bias
Martin et al. (2023) (46)	Cross sectional study	France	N = 22,060 undergraduate students (females) ♀ 64.9% ♂ 35.1%	♀ > ♂ self-harm/suicidality, affective lability, abandonment ♀ < ♂ impulsivity, and anger
Morey and Ochoa (1989) (41)	Cross sectional study	United States	N = 291 patients N = 101 psychiatrists +190 psychologists	BPD ♀ were more likely to be misdiagnosed with BPD when both the physician and the patient were females
Morey et al. (2002) (42)	Cross sectional study	United States	N = 101 male and female college students	No gender differences in the self-ratings of BPD criteria and the criteria were retained equally problematic for each gender
Sharp et al. (2014) (43)	Cross sectional study	United States	N = 747 psychiatric inpatient ♀ 371 ♂ 376	♂ > ♀ uncontrolled anger and impulsivity criteria

BPD, borderline personality disorder; ♂, men; ♀, women.