Table 1.
The functions of ATF3 in the process of pathogenic microbial infections.
| Microbial Name | Microbial Type | Functions of ATF3 | Research Models | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virus | ||||
| Hepatitis B Virus | DNA virus | ATF3 increases HBx mRNA degradation by regulating Ski2 expression. | HepG2, PXB, and AML12 cells. | [121,122] |
| Murine CytoMegalovirus | DNA virus | ATF3 regulates anti-MCMV responses by controlling the production of IFN-γ in NK cells. | C57BL/6, Rag1−/−, BALB/c, and ATF3−/− mice. | [126] |
| Herpes Simplex Virus 1 | DNA virus | ATF3 maintains the integrity of the neurons harboring latent virus. | HEp-2, Vero cell, HEK 293T, and CBA/J mice. | [132] |
| Human Papillomavirus | DNA virus | ATF3 plays a significant role in inducing apoptosis in HeLa cells. | HeLa cells. | [138,139] |
| Japanese Encephalitis Virus | RNA virus | ATF3 as a negative regulator of antiviral response and autophagy in mammalian cells during JEV infection. | Neuro2a, HEK, HeLa, and MEF cells. | [120] |
| Zika Virus | RNA virus | ATF3 acts to limit ZIKV infection by regulating autophagy and, thus, also ZIKV replication. | Wild-type and ATF3 knockout A549 cell lines. | [140] |
| Coxsackievirus B3 | RNA virus | -ATF3 regulates cell death induced by CVB3 infection. | HeLa cells. | [141] |
| Dengue Virus | RNA virus | Dengue virus degrades USP33-ATF3 axis via extracellular vesicles to activate microglial cells. | THP1 and HEK293T cells. | [142] |
| Human Immunodeficiency Virus | RNA virus | ATF3 orchestrates a recruitment of chromatin-modifying proteins. | Cervical carcinoma cell line C33A. | [143] |
| Bacteria | ||||
| Staphylococcus aureus | Gram-positive bacteria | ATF3 regulates antibacterial genes for antimicrobial processes. | Wild-type and ATF3 knockout mice. RAW 264.7 cell lines. | [14,15] |
| Streptococcus pneumoniae | Gram-positive bacteria | ATF3 promotes cytokine production (IL-17A TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ) in response to S. pneumoniae infection. | C57BL/6 WT and ATF3 KO mice. RAW 264.7 cells. | [4,13,17] |
| Listeria monocytogenes | Gram-positive bacteria | ATF3 provides protection from L. monocytogenes infections. | ATF3 knockout and wild-type mice. A549, HEp2, and RAW 264.7 cells. | [15] |
| Neisseria gonorrhoeae | Gram-negative bacteria | ATF3 negatively regulates IL-6 expression during N. gonorrhoeae infection. | T84 colorectal epithelial cells, End 1 endocervical cells, nasopharyngeal cells, and bronchial epithelial cell line 16HBE14. | [144] |
| Escherichia coli | Gram-negative bacteria | ATF3-mediated suppression of the innate cytokine storm abrogated the control of bacteria and causes high susceptibility to secondary infections. | C57BL/6 WT and ATF3 KO mice. A549, HEp2, and RAW 264.7 cells. | [15,53] |
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Gram-negative bacteria | ATF3 suppresses the progression of PA infection in hosts by inhibiting the activity of NF/κB. | AW264.7 and C57BL/6 ATF3 KO mice. | [145,146] |
| Mycobacterium tuberculosis | Other bacteria | ATF3 promotes cell autophagy and suppresses inflammatory response in Mycobacterium-tuberculosis-infected A549 cells. | A549 cells and RAW264.7 cells. BALB/c mice. | [12,147] |
| Mycoplasma pneumoniae | Other bacteria | ATF3 inhibits the expression and release of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-18 induced by Mycoplasma pneumoniae in vitro and in vivo. | BALB/c mice, C57BL/6 mice, and RAW264.7 cells. | [148] |
| Fungi and Parasite | ||||
| Patulin | Fungal toxin | Patulin enhances ATF3 expression and promotes apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells. | HCT116 cells. | [149] |
| Deoxynivalenol | Fungal toxin | Deoxynivalenol induces G2/M cell cycle arrest in HepG2 cells by ATF3ΔZip2a/2b. | HepG2 cells. | [150] |
| Leishmania | Parasite | ATF3 promotes the survival of the Leishmania by regulating inflammatory response. | RAW 264.7 and BMDM cells. | [151,152] |