Table 1.

Impact of prenatal diagnosis on CHD in parents.

Ref.	Method	Population Study	Main Findings
Solberg et al. 2012 [7]	- Eight-item version of the Hopkins Symptom - CheckList-25 Assessed at regular intervals from pregnancy up to 36 months postpartum	- Mothers of infants with mild, moderate, or severe CHD - Control group	Severe CHD in infants had prolonged negative effects on the mothers’ mental health. Prevailing, heightened symptoms of depression and anxiety were identified compared to pregnancy cohort controls at 6, 18, and finally at 36 months postpartum.
Bratt et al. 2019 [8]	- The Swedish version of the hospital anxiety and depression scale - The Swedish version of sense of coherence scale - Life satisfaction questionnaire - Dyadic Adjustment Scale	Three groups: (1) Pregnant women and their partners with a diagnosis of CHD in the fetus (2) Parents of children with postnatally diagnosed CHD (3) Pregnant women with a normal screening ultrasound	- The prenatal diagnostic group scored higher for symptoms of depression compared to control during pregnancy and had a lower sense of coherence. - Postnatally, the prenatal and postnatal diagnostic groups had higher levels of anxiety compared to controls. - Life satisfaction was lower in the prenatal diagnostic group compared to that in the postnatal group and in controls.
Kaasen et al. 2017 [9]	Self-report questionnaires - General health Questionnaire-28 - Impact of Event Scale-22 (IES) - Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale	- Fetal anomalies: CHD - Control group	The fetal anomaly group scored significantly higher (especially on depression-related questions) compared to the control group.
Wu et al. 2020 [6]	- Perceived Stress Scale - Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale - Fetal MRI	- Pregnant with CHD fetuses - Control group	Depression scores were higher among 17 women carrying fetuses with single-ventricle CHD vs. 31 women carrying fetuses with two-ventricle CHD. Psychological distress in women with fetal congenital heart disease appears to be prevalent. Maternal stress was associated with impaired fetal cerebellar and hippocampal development during the second half of gestation.
Salvador et al. 2022 [3]	- Brief Symptoms Inventory-18 (BSI-18) - Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) - Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale, version III (FACES-III)	- Pregnant with fetus with CHD and their partners - Control group	35.1% of fathers and 47.4% mothers had clinically significant scores of psychological distress.
Bevilacqua et al. 2013 [10]	The Italian version of postnatal questionnaire - General Health Questionnaire-30 (GHQ-30) - Beck Depression Index II - Health Survey-36 (SF-36)	- Parents of infants with prenatal diagnosis of CHD - Parents of infants with postnatal diagnosis of CHD	No difference was found between prenatal and postnatal groups in any field tested but, according to percentage, mothers receiving prenatal diagnosis were more depressed, whereas those receiving postnatal diagnosis were more stressed. Fathers showed same tendency.
Rychik et al. 2013 [5]	- Impact of Events Scale-Revised - Beck Depression Index II - State-Trait Anxiety Index - COPE Inventory - Dyadic Adjustment Scale	- Pregnant mothers of fetuses with CHD	Clinically important traumatic distress was seen in 39%, depression in 22%, and anxiety in 31%. Lower partner satisfaction was associated with higher depression (p < 0.01) and higher anxiety (p < 0.01).
Carlsson et al. 2018 [11]	Semi-structured interview	Twelve expectant fathers of fetuses with major CHD	The respondents experienced emotional distress in connection to the diagnosis and emphasized the importance of an informed joint decision.
Davey et al. 2023 [4]	- Symptom Inventory (BSI) - Impact of Events Scale–Revised (IES-R) assessing posttraumatic stress - Brief COPE - Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) - Life Stress Questionnaire	- Prenatal diagnosis of CHD - Postnatal diagnosis of CHD	A total of 68.6% had significant life stress, while 25.7% had clinical concerns or met criteria for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Mothers of infants with a prenatal diagnosis of CHD reported significantly lower rates of life stress despite higher severity of heart defects.