Table 1.
Effects of immune cell-derived EVs on target cells.
| Cell Type | Effect of Cell Type-Derived EVs on Target Cells | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Monocytes and Macrophages | - Involvement in the innate immune cell’s communication | [54] |
| - Regulation of inflammation, immune cell activation, and modulation of immune responses in various disease contexts | [55,56] | |
| - Immunomodulatory effects in cancer, acute kidney injury, and inflammatory disorders | [57,58,59] | |
| - M1-derived EVs induce macrophage activation, cytokine production, and immune cell recruitment | [60,61] | |
| - Implication in chronic inflammatory diseases (diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, and gastrointestinal disease) | [62] | |
| - Activation of macrophage-mediated inflammation and effects on vascular diseases | [63,64] | |
| - Modulation the status of pericytes in response to inflammatory stimuli | [65] | |
| - Regulation of bone homeostasis | [66] | |
| Dendritic Cell | - T cell stimulation and antigen-specific T cell responses | [67,68,69] |
| - Modulation of T cells and NK cell function | [70] | |
| - Immunomodulatory activity mediated by miRNA cargo on immune target cells | [71] | |
| T Cell | - Modulation of leukocytes, parenchymal, or stromal cells functions | [72] |
| - Inhibition of effector T cell responses | [73] | |
| - Reduction of IL-6, iNOS, IL-1β, and IFN- γ transcripts in spleen-derived myeloid cells | [74] | |
| - Suppression of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell proliferation | [75] | |
| - Regulation of DCs function, highlighting their immunomodulatory effects | [76] | |
| - Treg-derived EVs ameliorate chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome in rats | [77] | |
| - Involvement in modulation of autoimmune diseases and transplantation by inhibition of CD4+ T cell proliferation and relevant miR-146a-5p targets | [78] | |
| - Immunosuppressive effects of Treg EVs on target immune cells | [79] | |
| - Induction of tumour regression in tumour microenvironment | [80] | |
| B cell | - T cell interaction and immunomodulatory activity in T cell differentiation | [81,82,83] |
| - Activation of DCs, T CD4+ and NK to induce TCD8+ killing response | [83,84,85] | |
| - Inhibition of lymphocyte response to interleukin-2 | [86] | |
| - Modulation of gene expression in B-lymphocytes | [87] | |
| Natural Killer | - Involvement in immune tolerance and immunosuppression | [88] |
| - Antitumoral activity as effectors of NK cells | [88] | |
| - Activation of caspase-dependent or independent apoptosis pathways | [89] | |
| - Implication in immune surveillance | [90] | |
| - Regulation of cancer initiation, growth and metastasis as well as NK cells | [91] | |
| Red Blood Cell (RBC) | - Macrophage pro-inflammatory polarisation | [92] |
| - Activation of coagulation pathways | [93,94] | |
| - Impact on B lymphocyte survival and plasma cell differentiation | [95] | |
| - Human mast cell activation and induction of inflammatory mediators | [96] | |
| - T cell proliferation in peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures | [97] |