Table 7.

Techniques and methods used to detect nanoparticles in plants.

Methods	Description
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)	TEM allows us to visualize nanoparticles at the nanoscale within plant tissues. By preparing ultrathin sections of plant material and using TEM, the internal distribution and movement of nanoparticles can be observed in different plant structures [167].
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)	SEM is another microscopy technique that can be used to study the surface morphology of plant tissues and detect the presence of nanoparticles. It provides high-resolution images and can help identify the localization of nanoparticles on the plant’s surface [168].
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)	ICP-MS is a highly sensitive analytical technique used to quantify the elemental composition of samples. By digesting plant tissues and then subjecting them to ICP-MS analysis, the presence and concentration of specific nanoparticles can later be determined [169].
Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)	CLSM is a non-destructive imaging technique that can be used to track the movement of fluorescently labeled nanoparticles within plant tissues over time. This method is particularly useful for studying the dynamics of nanoparticle transport [163].
X-ray fluorescence (XRF)	XRF can be employed to analyze the elemental composition of plant tissues and identify the presence of nanoparticles. It can provide information about the distribution of specific elements, including those contained in nanoparticles [33].
Fluorescence and luminescence techniques (Flo-Lum)	Utilizing fluorescent or luminescent tags on nanoparticles, researchers can track the movement of nanoparticles through plants using fluorescence microscopy or other imaging techniques [170].