Table 3.
Anti-biofilm QPSs developed in the last fifteen years.
| Mechanism of Action | Type of Compound | Target Pathogens | Effects on BF | Concentration | [Ref.] Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EI, MDI, cytoplasmic leakage | TMPCS TPPCS |
E. coli | BF inhibition rate 33.9% (TMPCS), 56.6% (TPPCS) | 156 µg/mL | [148] 2023 |
| BF removal rate 46.4% (TMPCS), 48.9% (TPPCS) | 2.5 mg/mL | ||||
| S. aureus | BF inhibition rate 53.8% (TMPCS), 62.2% (TPPCS) | 20 µg/mL | |||
| BF removal rate 60.4% (TMPCS), 69.9% V | 2.5 mg/mL | ||||
| Disrupts disulfide bonds on the cell surface |
THPS | P. aeruginosa | 5 log killing of sessile cells | 100 ppm (2 h) 100 ppm (24 h) |
[149] 2010 |
| 35% (24 h)–45% (2 h) biomass residual | 100 ppm | ||||
| 40% (24 h)–40% (2 h) biomass residual | 1000 ppm | ||||
| N.R. | Bellacide® 350 Tolcide® PS75 |
P. aeruginosa | N.R. | N.R. | [150] 2010 |
| EI, MDI Partial diffusion in EPS |
Pyridoxine-based QPSs |
S. aureus
S. epidermidis |
QPS (6) killed detached S. epidermidis cells 68–77% cells located in BF killed |
32 µg/mL 8 µg/mL |
[151] 2015 |
| EI by well-accessible positive charges on QPSs Host–guest properties of pillar[n]arenes |
Pillar [5]arene QPS |
S. aureus
E. faecalis |
Inhibition of BF formation (MBIC50) No biocidal, no hemolytic |
2–4 µg/mL | [153] 2016 |
| N.R. | TTPC | S. aureus | ⇓ BF (OD545 < 1) | 20 µg/mL | [170] 2015 |
| P. aeruginosa | ⇓ BF (OD545 < 1) | 40 µg/mL | |||
| ⇓ Biofilm thickness (73.9%) and volume (73.8%) | 40 µg/mL | ||||
| QS disruption | ATPB |
Chromobacterium
violaceum |
Inhibition of BF formation (violacein inhibition) |
52.9–142.2 μM * | [171] 2015 |
| Vibrio harveyi. | Inhibition of BF formation (bioluminescence inhibition) |
128.6–348.5 μM * | |||
| EI, MDI Cell lysis, cytoplasmic leakage |
TATPBP (P6P-10,10) | EDR A. baumannii | BF eradication (MBEC) | MBEC 32–63 µM | [45] 2022 |
| EI, MDI, MD ROS production |
(1,2-DBTPP)Br2 (1,4-DBTPP)Br2 (1,6-DBTPP)Br2 |
S. aureus | 100% inhibition of BF formation | 64–128 µg/mL ** | [173] 2023 |
| 80% ⇓ metabolic activity | 32–64 µg/mL ** | ||||
| MRSA | 100% inhibition of BF formation | 128–256 µg/mL ** | |||
| 80% ⇓ metabolic activity | 64–128 µg/mL ** | ||||
| EI with cell surface Cell wall penetration |
NCPS | S. aureus | Significant ⇓ of BF formation | 64–128 µg/mL | [174] 2014 |
| E. coli | 64–256 µg/mL | ||||
| CTPBs |
S. aureus
E. coli |
Not active | MIC > 1600 µg/mL | ||
| N.R. | THPS |
Desulfovibrio
Desulfomicrobium Desulfocurvus |
⇓ Microbiologically influenced corrosion | 17% | [175] 2018 |
| N.R. | THPS | SRB APB |
Significant ability to penetrate BF 100% inhibition of SRB >85% inhibition of APB |
0.6% | [176] 2015 |
| Antioxidant effects Hydroxyl radical scavenging |
ATBPB, ATPB | MDR A. baumannii | N.R. | 6.25–25.0 μM | [158] 2022 |
EI = electrostatic interactions; MD = membrane depolarization; MDI = membrane disruption; N.R. = not reported; TMPCS = N-(4-N′, N′, N′-trimethylphosphonium chloride) benzoyl chitosan); TPPCS = N-(4-N′, N′, N′-triphenylphosphonium chloride) benzoyl chitosan; THPS = tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) phosphonium sulfate; Bellacide® 350: contains 50% tributyl tetradecyl phosphonium chloride (TBTP); Tolcide® PS75: contains 75% THPS; TTPC = tributyl tetradecyl phosphonium chloride; ⇓ = reduction; NPCSs = N-phosphonium chitosans with different degrees of substitution (3%, 13%, and 21%); CTPB = (5-carboxypentyl)triphenylphosphonium bromide; ATPB = alkyl triphenyl phosphonium bromide; ATBPB = alkyl tributyl phosphonium bromide; * biocidal effects at concentrations ≥500 μM; EDR = extensively drug resistant; TATPBP = tetraalkyl tetraphenyl bis-phosphonium; (1,2-DBTPP)Br2 = ethyl-bis-(triphenyl)-phosphonium bromide; (1,4-DBTPP)Br2 = butyl-bis-(triphenyl)-phosphonium bromide; (1,6-DBTPP)Br2 = hexyl-bis-(triphenyl)-phosphonium bromide; SRB = sulfate-reducing bacteria; APB = acid-producing bacteria; ** refers to compound in bold; numbers in bold indicate the number of compound as reported in the study; Bellacide® 350 and Tolcide® PS75 are from Azelis Americas, LLC, Westport, CT, USA.