Figure 8.

Parameters and variables in a colloidal system and their particle agglomeration performance are explained using the DLVO (Derjaguin, Landau, Vervey, and Overbeek) theory (a). Two main contributors to the total free energy per unit area are the additive forces of (V_vdw) van der Waals and (V_dl) double-layer interactions (a). To evaluate the V_vdw forces (b), the Hamaker constant can be measured using the Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), as described in (d). The V_dl forces (c) can be defined using any of the two equations. At the same time, the ionic strength (f) can be measured to replace the value in equation (e).