TABLE 2.

Factors causing antibiotic resistance in different sectors and some proposed solutions to overcome these factors.

Sector	Causes of antibiotic resistance	Proposed solutions
Human Health	➢ Prescription and use of antibiotics for viral infections, including Influenza, upper respiratory tract infections, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, and the common cold (Ladd, 2005; Tanday, 2016).	➢ Physicians should not prescribe antibiotics for viral infections.
	➢ Patients are not taking the entire course of antibiotics and interrupting their treatment when they feel better (Carlet et al., 2012).	➢ Patients should take their entire course of antibiotics even if they feel better.
	➢ Self-medication and misuse of antibiotics by patients because it is readily available in the pharmacy, and they can buy them without having a prescription (Darj et al., 2019; Machowska and Cecilia Stålsby, 2019).	➢ Banning the sale of antibiotics in pharmacies without a prescription.
	➢ Overprescription of un- necessary antibiotics, especially broad-spectrum antibiotics, by physicians (Mincey and Parkulo, 2001; Om et al., 2016).	➢ Physicians should only prescribe the necessary antibiotics for the disease without prescribing the unnecessary ones.
	➢ Poor infection control practices in hospitals and clinics, like hand washing and changing gloves (Weinstein, 2001).	➢ Attention should be paid to developing infection control practices in hospitals and clinics.
	➢ Lack of quality compliance and monitoring in hospitals and clinics results in expired and counterfeit antibiotics being used (Ayukekbong et al., 2017).	➢ Attention should be paid to quality compliance in hospitals and clinics to prevent the use of expired and counterfeit antibiotics.
Animal husbandry	➢ Overusing antibiotics in animal feeds for growth and disease control (Anwar et al., 2020; Kaur Sodhi and Singh, 2022; Shree et al., 2023; Sodhi et al., 2023).	➢ Establishing guidelines for prudent usage.
Agriculture	➢ Overusing antibiotics as pesticides for disease control in plants (Anwar et al., 2020; Kaur Sodhi and Singh, 2022; Shree et al., 2023; Sodhi et al., 2023).	➢ Establishing guidelines for prudent usage.
Aquaculture	➢ Overusing antibiotics in fish farming (Anwar et al., 2020; Kaur Sodhi and Singh, 2022; Shree et al., 2023; Sodhi et al., 2023).	➢ Establishing guidelines for prudent usage.