. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2024 May 8.

Published in final edited form as: ACS Biomater Sci Eng. 2021 Nov 16;9(5):2048–2069. doi: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c00741

Table 1.

Summary of the Bio-Inspired Hydrogels in Wearable Diagnostics and Biosensors

type	hydrogel	electrolyte	biomimicry	properties	sensing category	ref
Physical mixing	HMA-AMM/Ata-AAa	LiCl	Human skin	Conductivity (0.039 S/cm); Adhesive strength (275.6 N/m); Stretchability (1784%); Toughness (~1750 kJ/m³); Self-recovery	Strain	38
	TOCNF/PAA–PPy	Fe³⁺	Human skin	Stretchability (890%); Viscoelasticity (G′ 27.1 kPa); Conductibility (3.9 S m⁻¹); Self-healing (98–99%); Gauge factor (7.3)	Strain	53
	G/HPAAM/Dopa-Fe³⁺	LiCl	Mussel	Stretchability (1150%); Tensile strength (112 kPa); Conductivity (0.0720 S cm⁻¹); Adhesion (100 N m⁻¹); Self-healing	Strain	16
	OCS-AMP/PAAM	NaCl	DNA	Stretchability (500%); elastic modulus (22.9 kPa); Toughness (1457.6 kJ m⁻³); Conductivity (0.028 S cm⁻¹); Self-recovery	Strain Pressure	43
	PAAM/PDA	Sodium casein	Mussle	Stretchability (2100%); Adhesion (2200 N/m); Conductivity (3.5 mS cm⁻¹); Self-healing	Strain Pressure	54
	PAA/PVA/PAAc	H₂SO₄	N/A	Stretchability (2600%); Fracture strength (3.1 MPa); Toughness (18.7 MJ m⁻³); Self-recover	Stretchable electronics	55
Chemical bonding	ACC/PAA/Alg	Ca₂CO₃	Shrimp shell	Shrimp shell Stretchability (1000%); Self-recovery (83%); Pressure sensitivity (0.17 kPa⁻¹); Self-healing	Strain Pressure	56
	PAA/DOPADHA	Fe(NO₃)₃	Human skin	Stretchability (800%); Adhesion to porcine skin (12.6 kPa); Thermoplastic; Electroconductive; Self-healing (98% recovery)	Strain	57
	LiCl/agar/PAAM	LiCl	Human skin	Stretchability (1600%); Toughness 2.2 MJ/m³; Gauge factor (~1.8); Bending sensibility	Temperature Strain	58
	Guar gum	Na₂B₄O₇	Hydrogen bond	Adhesive; Antifreezing; Self-healing; Injectability; Conductive	Strain	59
	PNaAMPS/PAAM	Fe³⁺	Skeletal muscles	Toughness/elastic modulus (~1 MPa)/self-growth	Soft robots	60