Teaching inside a digital classroom: A quantitative analysis of attitude, technological competence and access among teachers across subject disciplines

Abstract

This study delves into the attitudes of educators toward online teaching, their technological proficiency, and access to technology, with a particular emphasis on examining potential gender distinctions. Employing a quantitative-descriptive-correlational research design, this research meticulously examines the intricate relationships among these variables. The primary objectives of this investigation involve scrutinizing teachers' attitudes toward online instruction, evaluating their technological competency, and gauging their accessibility to technology. The results reveal that, by and large, teachers exhibit a moderately favorable disposition toward online teaching, signifying their eagerness to embrace this pedagogical approach. Furthermore, these educators demonstrate a commendable level of technological competence, showcasing their adeptness in harnessing technology for instructional purposes. In the context of technological accessibility, most teachers report encountering minimal impediments; however, science teachers disclose relatively restricted access.

A gender-based analysis of the data suggested a notable absence of significant disparities in attitudes, technological proficiency, and access between male and female educators. This finding substantiates the assertion that gender exerts a negligible influence on shaping teachers' perspectives regarding online teaching and their technological adeptness. Moreover, this research revealed a substantial positive correlation between teachers' attitudes toward online teaching and their technological competence, as well as their access to technology. This implies that educators endowed with enhanced technological proficiency and enhanced access are more likely to harbor favorable attitudes toward online teaching.

The implications of these findings underscore the paramount significance of supporting teachers in augmenting their technological competence while simultaneously ensuring equitable access to technology resources. These two factors emerge as pivotal catalysts for facilitating the seamless integration of online teaching into contemporary education. In the era of the COVID-19 pandemic, where online instruction has become indispensable, the imperative for ongoing professional development and support has become unmistakably evident. This study calls for a sustained commitment to nurturing and further enhancing teachers' affirmative attitudes toward online teaching to effectively navigate the ever-evolving landscape of education.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background of the study

In the 21st century, the global education landscape is undergoing a profound transformation due to rapid technological advancements. Teachers and educators worldwide are facing the imperative need for adaptability. Technology has evolved significantly, giving rise to a myriad of teaching, and learning tools and platforms and extending the boundaries of education beyond traditional classroom settings into the digital realm. The advent of the COVID-19 pandemic further accelerated this transformation, compelling educators to make tremendous adjustments as they navigated the challenges posed by the crisis [1].

The pandemic forced large-scale shutdowns to curtail the virus's spread, necessitating the suspension of physical campus learning. In response, education systems worldwide have shifted from synchronous to asynchronous teaching and learning modalities [2]. This abrupt transition ushered in the widespread use of digital tools for instruction, such as Google Meet and Microsoft Teams. Consequently, it has become paramount to investigate educators' attitudes toward digital teaching and the utilization of these digital tools [3]. This exploration continues to be pertinent even in the post pandemic era.

The recent transformation of education has compelled the education sector to consider a profound revolution in instructional delivery, necessitating the active collaboration of all stakeholders [4]. One pivotal response to this shift has been the integration of technology and the internet into the education of young learners. This integration aimed to ensure uninterrupted access to education and mitigate potential repercussions that the pandemic could have on the educational process.

However, despite the accessibility of technology and its potential as an alternative instructional modality, educators utilizing online platforms still encounter various challenges. In the digital realm, just as in physical classrooms, teachers must recognize the paramount role and importance of pedagogy in facilitating successful learning [5]. Successful pedagogy involves educators possessing a deep understanding of how students' learning can be achieved through well-designed learning content, effective assessment, and the delivery of lessons using digital platforms as a medium for instruction. Furthermore, effective implementation of online learning designs necessitates teachers to possess extensive technical competence [6]. They must be adept at managing and implementing this mode of instruction to create a conducive learning environment.

Teaching and learning in the online environment present a plethora of opportunities for engagement and interactivity, offering a wide array of applications, software, and tools [7]. However, the abundance of these technological options often overwhelms educators, challenging them to make informed decisions about which tools to incorporate into their online instruction [8]. argue that the failure to integrate these options is often attributed to educators' limited technological skills. This limitation can lead to frustration and resistance toward technology, ultimately fostering a negative attitude toward online instruction [9]. proposed that a teacher must be competent in four areas of instruction when using technology as a medium. He included areas of competence in pedagogy, social engagement, technology, and management. In his study, he mentioned important findings on teachers' loss of control over instruction since the online platform is designed with uninterrupted pacing. Moreover, due to this design, teachers' ability to modify and individualize learning for students is hampered. In terms of a more alarming concern, he reiterated in his study that teachers find this modality difficult to manage since these “required” teachers’ competences overlap with one another, thus creating more confusion on which competence in online instruction must have more of a premium to respond to the actual needs of every learner in an online classroom.

In the Philippines, the Department of Education (DepEd) faced significant challenges in its mission to provide quality primary and high school education while protecting students from the ongoing disruptive pandemic. In response to this predicament, DepEd initiated the DepEd Commons, which was conceived as an immediate solution to grant access to open educational resources (OERs) and online learning materials during school closures and related disruptions. This initiative serves as a practical remedy to sustain learning when traditional face-to-face education becomes nearly impossible due to localized isolation and the implementation of social distancing measures.

In alignment with these efforts, the Commission on Higher Education, responsible for overseeing tertiary education in both public and private institutions, has formulated guidelines for the implementation of flexible learning among higher education institutions (HEIs). These guidelines are currently undergoing public deliberation. The memorandum emphasizes the need for HEIs to develop strategies for facilitating student-teacher interactions and communication. This includes the use of short message services (SMSs), emailing, chatting, texting, and other suitable and feasible channels. The aim is to establish individualized, effective, and efficient mentoring and feedback systems that cater to the unique needs of each learner.

Considering these developments, the unwavering dedication and commitment of educators within the academic sphere have been put to the ultimate test. Teachers find themselves thrust into an environment characterized by unprecedented change, where they are required to adapt swiftly to the utilization of various online tools, such as emails, online assessments, and live streaming of their instructional presentations [1]. This transformation places a premium on their knowledge, skills, and competence in harnessing technology, which must be readily accessible for their benefit and that of their students.

Every facet of what students should learn, acquire, understand, and know can now be seamlessly translated into the digital classroom [10]. aptly notes that a fundamental shortcoming in a modern classroom is the absence of technology. Therefore, the integration of digital technology in education aims to elevate teaching and learning into a mutually enriching process for both educators and learners. The incorporation of a digital classroom enhances the quality of education in terms of efficiency and achieving optimal outcomes. It also aligns teaching and learning methodologies with the evolving technological landscape, fostering more effective, productive, and constructive classroom environments.

Crucially, students in the 21st century require instruction in various technical skills, making the teaching and learning process more engaging and dynamic than traditional methods that rely solely on books and notes, as highlighted by Ref. [11]. Additionally, proficiency in technical skills has become a fundamental requirement for success in contemporary life, as underscored by Ref. [12]. Teachers have found it convenient to use technology and computers to demonstrate dynamic processes in real time, showcasing videos and clips of significant historical events that stimulate deeper critical thinking among students.

Incorporating a digital classroom involves the utilization of digital learning platforms, which, according to Ref. [13], have the potential to enhance learning, make subjects more appealing, and cultivate problem solving, communication, and research skills. Consequently, digital learning platforms positively correlate with academic achievement in subjects such as mathematics, science, and reading. Furthermore [14], elucidated that the use of digital learning platforms to support education is not only essential but also a prevalent phenomenon in the 21st century. These platforms guide educators in adopting a pedagogical approach suited to the demands of this era.

The deployment of the digital classroom as an educational platform necessitates comprehensive consideration of various factors. This paper delves into several of these considerations, including the attitudes, technological competencies, access to technology, and gender of educators who, whether prepared or not, find themselves compelled to meet the evolving demands of society. Hence, teachers' disposition toward online instruction is significantly influenced by their perception of their competence in managing this mode of teaching, their ability to adapt to various technologies for effective teaching and learning, and their ability to create a conducive learning environment in an alternative format. Attitude has emerged as a focal point in educational research due to its pivotal role in comprehending and analyzing behavioral patterns [15]. Recognizing teachers' attitudes toward digital teaching holds particular importance, given their crucial role in the educational process and their impact on students' learning outcomes [16], as does the integration of digital tools in online classroom interactions [17]. Therefore, this study is designed to explore teachers' attitudes toward online teaching, their technological competence, and their access to technology.

1.2. Research questions

The study primarily aimed to measure the attitude, willingness, competence, and access to technology of the respondents. Specifically, the following questions guided the development and direction of the present study.

• 1.What is the attitude of the respondents toward online teaching, technological competence, and access?
• 2.Is there a significant difference in attitude, technological competence, and access between male and female respondents?
• 3.Is there a significant relationship between the respondents' attitude toward online teaching and technological competence and access?
• 4.Is there a significant relationship between the respondents' technological access and competence?

2. Literature review

2.1. Attitude toward the modern teaching modality

Attitude refers to an individual's favorable or unfavorable assessment of an object, person, or situation. It is a psychological construct influenced by factors such as socialization, direct experiences, and various other variables. Attitude encompasses three key components: behavior, affect, and cognition [18].

The sudden turn of events tests how teachers are willing to acclimatize to the demands of the current situation and how their attitudes toward the needed change affect their pedagogical performance. With this [19], indicated that there is an existing feeling of connectedness between teachers and students, and they establish an open environment for the listening and discussion of ideas. In the same manner, they remarked that the participants felt that the lecturer could answer the necessities of every student, which was an evident attitudinal manifestation of teachers attending online training courses. These positive feelings and attitudes are characteristics that are influenced and propelled by several factors [20], such as communication between the lecturer and the learner and between the learner and other learners [21]. It can be deduced that a rather positive learning environment is ensured owing to the social connections that bolster students’ self-confidence and self-esteem. However, limited nonverbal cues from the instructor and/or other students can undermine self-confidence in an online class [22].

Moreover [23], argued that religious educators demonstrated positive attitudes toward using mobile devices as learning tools since they were willing and ready to utilize them in their classrooms and had positive attitudes about using mobile technology in general. Similarly [24], contended that student teachers exhibit a willingness to incorporate educational mobile gaming in their future profession. These aspects do not persist without counter views; an unprepared learning environment and inadequate technology and content incongruity for the implementation of gaming are potential impediments that can curb the implementation of mobile learning. Similarly [25], discovered that despite the widespread recognition of their awareness and motivation to utilize innovative education and training, the use of technologically related programs in classrooms, and the use of technological assistance and offices, teachers' readiness to use technology was notably low. The readiness of educators for mobile learning and motivation and awareness for using technology in the instructional cycle were two connected ideas that, in any event, had a fundamentally certain connection.

Several studies have been conducted that have shown the negative attitudes and resistance of teachers toward teaching and learning only in an online modality. Owing to their resistance [26], indicated that online learning appears to be the opposite: it is both booming and busting concurrently. For example [26,27], and [28] indicated that faculty members exhibit resistance toward online teaching and learning, partly due to their belief that the change threatens their values and culture, which they enjoy in education. Specifically, some of these concerns raised by the faculty involved an increase in their workload [29]; insufficient resources, compensation, and issues pertinent to intellectual property; lack of technological skills and training; scant confidence or anxiety with the use of technology; and issues about pedagogy for the success of the learning process of students on an online platform. [30,31], and [26] remarked that teachers who are accustomed to physically synchronous classrooms feel a certain disconnection from students and colleagues and believe that their students feel the same. Graduate students or future educators who have little or no experience with online learning platforms, such as students or educators, also express negative views regarding online teaching and learning [32]. The concerns of faculty members related to online learning are intensified because of limited or no experience teaching online [33]. Additionally [34], acknowledged and justified the idea that teachers aged older than 50 years have difficulties and are less likely to incorporate cell phones into their lessons.

More explicitly [34], contended that the attitude of Korean educators toward mobile learning was, for the most part, low. Regarding gender, female educators were more certain when contrasted with their male equals in their attitude toward mobile learning. Furthermore, compared to elementary school teachers, secondary school teachers had a more positive attitude toward a given tool, including the usage of mobile learning, and language teachers had a more positive attitude than teachers of other subjects.

2.2. Attitude and gender

Attitude as a construct in a scholarly study forms a part and parcel of the understanding of the intricacies of humanity in many respects such that including it in research intertwined with other variables is enlightening. Research such as that of [[35], [36], [37], [38]] focused on this construct interwoven with willingness, language, electronic digital reading and reading comprehension, respectively. Another construct that was previously mentioned is gender, as investigated in Ref. [39], where attitude has been investigated alongside gender.

In this manner, it is encouraging that gender might be important for educators' perspectives on online tasks as applied to education. While research on gender differences in common physical synchronous platforms has been undertaken [40], there have also been findings that link gender-related attitudes toward online learning [41]. contended that male educators had more inspirational perspectives toward mobile learning than females. With rather varying discoveries, in a review performed in Saudi Arabia [42], showed that female teachers had a positive attitude toward mobile learning, as stood out from male teachers. Furthermore, in the development of a combined hypothesis of technology acceptance and utilization and assessment of the gender divide that serves as a mediator in the technology acceptance model [43], discovered that males had a more notable propensity to be task oriented and were more focused on completing a task. Moreover, by and large [44], tracked enormous contrasts in web-based learning performance.

Similarly, although the participants were regarded as prolific users of the Internet, as described by Ref. [45] among senior high school students, according to Ref. [46], when compared to their male counterparts, the female respondents' perceptions of computer-assisted language learning effectiveness showed substantial variation in favor of the females. This finding resonates with the study carried out by Ref. [47], where female participants evinced more positive attitudes toward mobile learning than did their male counterparts. Moreover [48], remarked that male students benefit more from the utilization of technologies involving interactive communication to increase social presence, bringing about an upsurge in satisfaction with learning online.

Nonetheless, some studies have produced unique findings [49]. showed no connection between gender and attitudes appropriate for computer-assisted language learning. These findings are consistent with those of [50,51], who commented that there is no massive contrast in students' mentalities compared with gender and learning on an online platform. Moreover [52], examined Spanish and Iranian language instructors' perspectives toward the utilization of computer-assisted language learning, and no significant difference was found between them and gender. Additionally [53], showed that gender differences do not exist in teachers' or students’ attitudes about mobile learning.

2.3. Technological competence

A positive attitude is an integral component of a successful digital teacher. In conjunction with this approach is the teacher's competence. Technological skills must be of equal significance to an online teacher as an attitude. [[54], [55], [56]], and [57] identified the skills in terms of technology that an online instructor needs to possess in his or her pedagogical repertoire: access to numerous technological resources and tools such as emails, Internet browsers, and learning management systems; understanding of the teaching-learning capacities and limitations of the forenamed tools; knowing the technical requirements for and methods involved in producing online content such as e-books and various educational videos; and being abreast of changes and advances in technology and software used in education.

Using a more generic lens [58], classified the skills and competencies in teaching in environments within the digital purview. The following are the areas of concern for the online instructor: content, pedagogical, design, management and institutional, and societal and communication skills. These abilities are exceptionally essential before the implementation of mobile learning, and educators who are proficient in technology carry out mobile learning well within the bounds of the classroom [34,59]. In addition [56], contended that there is a need to recognize jobs, qualities, capabilities, and abilities to such an extent that one becomes a skilled and successful internet-based teacher.

There have been various classifications of competencies presented by some researchers in teachers’ competence for them to flourish in this enterprise [60]. categorized the qualities and competencies necessary for online teaching as follows: (1) knowledge of the processes involved in the digital teaching domain; (2) technical skills; (3) communication skills used online; (4) expertise in the content; and (5) personal characteristics. [61], after their investigation of 17 online learning courses, formulated eight categories of competency: (1) skills for management systems utilizable for content; (2) other skills needed for technicalities; (3) instructional design; (4) social processes and presence; (5) managing of assessment; (6) student orientation; (7) institutional knowledge; and (8) pedagogy and andragogy. Others have concisely identified online competencies as technological, personal, social, or pedagogical as appendages to groups of capabilities connected with substances, plans, correspondence, and management [62].

In a similar vein, pedagogical skills, alongside technological skills and in the sphere of digital teaching, form an integral component in the entirety of the online teaching enterprise. [55,63], and [56] described several principles and strategies for amalgamating pedagogy and online teaching: learning theories; designing and implementing congruous instructional strategies; facilitating and organizing the participation of students; providing guidance and support to students; utilizing criterion-based evaluation and assessment; motivating and showing enthusiasm and interest to learners; encouraging the construction of knowledge premised on students' prior knowledge and experiences; nurturing students’ self-assessment and reflective work; and promoting engagement in groups, collaboration and teamwork.

Aside from the variation in academic practices [54,55], commented that web-based educators require concentrating completely on what must be done, made do, and created in their internet-based class platform and how to speak with the student amidst the absence of actual presence and restricted collaboration. Likewise, the sense and control of time have rather varying examples in online courses in that there is essentially no fixed time span where the students and the educator meet and collaborate.

The training that faculty members obtain and the preparation they do, at least in higher education institutions, are comparatively limited [62,64]. It can thus be inferred that the inadequacy of preparation and training is greater in online teaching and learning platforms [65]. corroborate this by arguing that teachers felt that the professional development they needed was not commensurate with the one they received; thus, more expert advancement exercises were required for online teaching.

2.4. Gender and competence

According to several studies pertaining to gender and technological competence, there appears to be a domination of the male gender; in other words, information, and communication technology (ICT) have been associated with the male gender [66]. [67] reported that male Turkish EFL instructors’ assessments of themselves are superior to those of their female counterparts. Similarly [68], reported that male teachers and students had a greater level of self-estimation in terms of ICT. Additionally [69], claimed that males had a greater positive perspective on the use of ICT in their lessons and learned its utilization as truly propelling. In addition [70], indicated that ICT-related studies in universities involve relatively low participation from females, and female students are said to have less mastery of some ICT-linked tasks. Moreover, there has been research reporting that the gender-based selection of professionals in the field of ICT favors men [71]. Additionally [72], argued that there is a gender-related gap among adult users of ICT—that is, men utilize a wide range of applications fundamentally more than women do.

The preceding can be attributed to a few factors discussed by some researchers. ICT culture among boys or males evinces features of an expert culture that seems to manifest an adaptive tendency [73]. At the expense of their home, males can experience difficulties in determining the complexities of ICTs and learning computer technology alongside their friends or on their own. In contrast, girls primarily acquire their ICT know-how at school [74]. In fact, males regard the use of computer technology as an avenue to maintain and develop friendships with other males [75]. Additionally, during free time, males are more aware of computer-related matters [66,69].

From an alternate point of view, some scholars propose that there are no significant differences between gender and technological competence [68]. contended that although male educators and students evaluate themselves higher in terms of ICT, female students' ability and utilization of ICT are generally like those of male educators [76]. demonstrated that there is no significant distinction regarding gender in relation to e-skill applications among teaching professionals. Similarly [77], remarked that the difference between genders in the utilization of ICT wears away in the sphere of “basic and moderate knowledge” of electronic tools. There are also studies suggesting that gender differences reach a point of equilibrium pertinent to ICT among younger age groups [78,79].

2.5. Access to technology

Web accessibility, or simple access, is an important area that needs attention from curricularists, web designers, and online teachers. In fact, some related research has been conducted in this area of concern (e.g., Refs. [[80], [81], [82], [83]]). In a generic sense, it is argued that the definition ought to focus on the contribution, achievability, realistic state, unambiguity, and understanding that everyone can claim and experience from. In the province of education, particularly in the context of distance learning [49], argued that there was frustration experienced by teachers about not being able to support their students sufficiently owing to poor access to online resources. From the outset alone, technical problems have been impactful in precluding distance learning to yield favorable results.

Access to the Internet should be on equal footing as the competencies and skills demanded of a teacher, as without access or poor quality, it is an impediment for teachers to deliver as expected [81]. contended that accessibility is one of the crucial concerns of the web that necessitates sheer consideration in designing a product. In fact, there are many demands from teachers that are relevant to accessibility [84]. indicated that a question or two posed by learners must be responded to promptly by the teacher within 48–72 h. Supporting [84] is [85], who argues that a discussion forum permits access to students, which could be an effective avenue for the provision of general information relative to the course. The effective utilization of the tools intended for communication permits teachers to send valuable information to students, as this is one of the obligations of teachers [86]. contended that students' preference for accessing and receiving information was toward multiple areas. The students in their study showed that they favor their teachers to use numerous correspondence means — messaging, email, message boards — when data are conveyed to them and to exploit multimedia technology to disseminate information to them. This apparently requires teachers’ Internet accessibility.

In response to the pressing issues and concerns raised above [87], remarked that an upgrade of school technology is a significant factor in Internet utilization. This means that, based on the empirical data taken from the 205 teacher participants, a concerted effort between the teacher and the school is most likely to aid in narrowing the digital divide in rural areas. From the teachers' end, it is the willingness to purchase personal computers, and from the school's, the provision of relevant professional development training to help augment the teachers' interest in the use of the Internet and enrich their knowledge. Moreover, specific to some disciplines taught [88], claimed that in a study carried out, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) educators appraised themselves altogether more highly than did their capacity to craft and access lessons involving technology, as opposed to teachers of different areas of concentration.

There are issues related to poor or no internet connectivity that seem to be serious problems that concern teachers such as Nigerian in-service teachers [89], but issues such as foregoing are not the only concerns in teaching online. There are likewise some relevant concerns, such as the potential distractions and interruptions that may take place amidst an online session. Hence [90], discussed and presented some strategies to counter and/or mitigate issues relating to the foregoing barriers, such as planning work sessions and predetermined or prearranged breaks, bomb countdown timer, limiting applications or programs, and staying focused. Additionally, designating a physical workspace, establishing online teaching work hours, avoiding answering phone calls while on work sessions, and communicating and sticking to the plan are solutions to combat interruptions.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research design

The current study employed a quantitative descriptive-correlational research design, which is a research methodology designed to assess the level of association between two or more variables [91]. This design enables researchers to determine whether there exists a positive relationship, a negative relationship, or no relationship between these variables. Specifically, the study is categorized as quantitative because it aims to quantify the variables under investigation [92]. Objective theories should be validated through the examination of these variables and their relationships through the systematic collection, interpretation, analysis, and reporting of the study's results [93].

Furthermore, the study is characterized as descriptive because it aims to provide an overview of a specific characteristic or status [94]. This aligns with the research objective, which is to assess respondents' attitudes toward online teaching, their willingness to engage in such teaching, their technological competence, and their access to resources. The research process encompasses data collection, categorization, analysis, and description, reinforcing its classification as a descriptive research type [95], as cited in Ref. [36]. Similarly [96], defines descriptive research as a method used to portray the facts and characteristics of a particular population or area of interest systematically and accurately, with the intention of uncovering associations and relationships among selected variables.

Furthermore, this study aimed to establish associations between variables, specifically examining the relationship between attitudes toward online teaching and technological competence, as well as the relationship between technological competence and access. This characteristic of exploring associations between variables renders the study correlational in nature.

Regarding the approach to data collection, the study employed research tools, which is a preferred technique when dealing with large populations [97], as cited in Ref. [35], as was the case in this research. Moreover, the study is classified as cross-sectional because the data gathering process occurred only once and within a short time frame [98,99]. Additionally, this study can be classified as population-based, as it focused on specific individuals drawn from a particular population, namely, teachers across various subject disciplines, including mathematics, science, and social science [100].

3.2. Respondents

In general, the study sampled a total of 300 teachers equally divided across three subject areas (social studies, mathematics, and science). In terms of gender, females (66 %) composed the largest sample in the present study, which is confined to the trend regarding female domination in teacher education courses, as identified in various studies [[101], [102], [103], [104]], and [105]. Most (86.7 %) of the respondents were working in public schools, and more than half (51.3 %) of the teachers involved in the study were married. In terms of educational attainment, 59 % were bachelor's degree holders, 37.7 % were master's degree holders, and only 3.3 % held a doctorate degree. In addition, the age range of the teachers was 21–61 years, with a mean age of 32.08 years (SD-8.73). On the other hand, regarding the years of service of the respondents, the range was 0–39 (mean – 12.25, SD - 13.45).

With respect to social studies teachers (SSTs), the age range was 21–56 years, with a mean age of 32.080 years (SD = 8.76). In terms of years of service, the year range is 0–29 (mean = 6.20, standard deviation = 6.06). Additionally, more than four-fifths of the respondents were employed in public schools, while the remaining fraction were working in private academic institutions. In addition, slightly more than half (54 %) of the SS teachers claimed to be single. Furthermore, most of the respondents were holders of only a bachelor's degree (49 %), while the least number of respondents held a doctorate degree (4 %).

For Science Teachers (STs), the youngest was aged 22 years, while the oldest respondent was aged 61 years (mean age equals 36.63 years with a standard deviation of 10.77 years). Regarding years of service, the range among STs was 1–39 (mean-10.75, SD-9.26). Additionally, 91 % of the STs are employed in government-managed schools. Regarding marital status, 40 % of the respondents claimed to be single. Furthermore, relative to educational attainment, slightly more than half (58 %) claimed to have earned only a bachelor's degree, while more than a quarter (33 %) had earned a master's degree – only 9 % had attained a doctorate degree. Regarding sex, the majority (79 %) were females.

For mathematics teachers (MTs), the age range was 21–56 years, with a mean age equal to 32.08 years (SD-8.76). With respect to years of service, the range was 1–35 (mean = 15.27, SD = 15.42). Additionally, 90 % of the MTs were employed in public schools, and 46 % claimed to be single. For educational attainment, more than half (64 %) were bachelor's degree holders, more than a quarter (33 %) were master's degree holders, and only 3 % were doctorate degree holders. In addition, 72 % of the MTs were females.

None of the respondents involved in the study were minor. Moreover, all the respondents consented to participate in the investigation. None were included against his/her will. Prior to the enlistment of respondents, participation was voluntary, and no form of disengagement was provided if a teacher denied participation.

3.3. Research instruments

To achieve the research objective of evaluating teachers' attitudes, willingness, technological competence, and access to technology, this study employs a survey questionnaire that integrates three adapted research instruments. The research instruments for assessing attitudes and technological competence were sourced from the Attitude toward Online Learning Tool (AtOTT) and the Teacher's Technological Competence Tool (TCTT), both of which were developed by Ref. [106]. These instruments have demonstrated high reliability, as evidenced by their Cronbach's α values of 0.862 and 0.898, respectively. To measure the extent of technology access among teachers, a 7-item tool adapted from Ref. [107] was utilized, and the reliability coefficient was 0.774.

The research instrument involved a pilot test of a total of 80 respondents who shared similar characteristics with the final sample. Importantly, the respondents involved in the pilot test were distinct from those included in the final sample. The data obtained from the pilot test were analyzed using Cronbach's alpha. Notably, both the Teacher's Technological Competence Tool (TTCT) and the Attitude toward Online Learning Tool (ArOTT) exhibited increases in reliability, with values of 0.891 and 0.901, respectively. A similar trend was observed for the tool assessing technological access, with a reliability coefficient of 0.803.

In total, the questionnaire comprises 47 items, with 30 items dedicated to assessing teachers' attitudes toward online teaching across three sections (affective, cognitive, and behavioral aspects). Responses are recorded using a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 'Agree to 'Somehow Agree', 'Somehow Disagree', and 'Disagree.' Additionally, there are 10 items designed to measure teachers' technological competence, rated on a 4-point Likert scale with options ranging from 'Not competent' to 'Very competent.' Finally, seven items evaluate teachers' levels of technology access, employing a 3-point Likert scale denoting 'No access,' 'Limited access,' and 'No problem with access.'

3.4. Data collection

The data collection was technology assisted. This was realized using online forms. The adopted questionnaires were digitized and subsequently sent to the identified respondents. The respondents were given two weeks to answer the research tools. A notice was given to the respondents approximately four days before the set deadline. Prior to data collection, the paper was subjected to ethical review.

3.5. Coding procedure

The accumulated information from the research instrument was coded to support analysis through SPSS. For the dichotomous variable gender, the code is 1 for male and 2 for female. The coding procedures of [106] for the two instruments (AtOTT and TTCT) were used, and the coding procedure of [107] for the Teachers ‘Technological Access Tool (TTAT) was utilized.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Teachers’ attitude toward online teaching, technological competence, and access

From the surveys collected, spreadsheets were used to tabulate the answers of the respondents. Subsequently, descriptive analysis was possible after the transfer of the raw information to SPSS.

Table 1 in the study reveals that teachers across various disciplines exhibit a generally ‘somewhat positive’ attitude toward online teaching. This finding suggested that the respondents tended to hold a favorable view of online teaching. This aligns with the findings of previous research. For instance Ref. [23], emphasized that religious teachers demonstrated a positive attitude and readiness to incorporate mobile technology in their classrooms, particularly regarding the use of mobile phones as learning tools. Similarly [24], found that teachers expressed a willingness to integrate educational mobile gaming into their future professional practices. Moreover [108], noted that engineering trainee-teachers exhibited a positive attitude toward the adoption of technology in tertiary engineering education. This positive attitude extends to their preferences and intentions regarding technology use, their perception of its utility in daily tasks, and the level of control they feel while using technology in engineering disciplines.

Table 1.

Teachers’ attitude toward online teaching, technological competence, and access.

Subject Disciplines	Attitude toward online teaching			Technological Competence			Technological Access
	M	SD	Interp.	M	SD	Interp.	M	SD	Interp.
Social Studies Teachers	2.92	0.56	Somehow Positive	2.64	0.64	Competent	2.45	0.41	No problem with Access
Mathematics Teachers	2.96	0.46	Somehow Positive	2.64	0.61	Competent	2.52	0.46	No problem with Access
Science Teachers	2.89	0.37	Somehow Positive	2.53	0.66	Competent	2.30	0.49	Limited Access
Overall	2.95	0.49	Somehow Positive	2.64	0.62	Competent	2.49	0.45	No problem with Access

Furthermore, this positive attitude toward online learning among teachers aligns with the observations of [109], who noted the various benefits it offers, including enhanced flexibility in task execution, improved accessibility, pedagogical innovation, and opportunities for self-regulated learning. However, despite these advantages, online teaching is not without challenges; it includes issues related to student engagement, interaction, infrastructure, and technical support; assessment; and pedagogical practices, as highlighted by Ref. [109]. These challenges can potentially affect teachers' attitudes toward online teaching and, in some cases, may lead to more negative perceptions.

Numerous research studies have highlighted the presence of negative attitudes and resistance among certain teachers toward online teaching and learning. For instance Ref. [26], posited that online learning has a dual nature—it is simultaneously thriving and facing challenges. Similarly [109], described online teaching as a ‘double-edged sword’ characterized by both advantages and difficulties. Moreover [27,28], revealed that faculty members have displayed resistance to online teaching and learning, partly driven by concerns that this change threatens the traditional culture and values of education. Some of the specific concerns expressed by faculty members include increased workloads [29], inadequate resources and compensation, intellectual property issues, lack of technological skills and training, limited confidence, or technology-related anxiety, as well as worries regarding the effectiveness of pedagogy in an online setting.

In addition [26,30], and [31] noted that teachers accustomed to traditional synchronous classrooms may feel a sense of disconnection from students and colleagues when transitioning to online teaching. They also believe that their students may experience isolation and disconnection in this digital environment. This sentiment was further corroborated by Ref. [110], who found that teachers encountered challenges in online teaching and learning due to factors such as reduced student participation and engagement, students impacted by the digital divide and lacking access to technology, concerns about student well-being, difficulties in adapting to new technology, and a lack of work-life balance. Thus [54], enumerated deterrent issues potentially encountered by faculty members teaching digitally: dealing with stress and potential feelings of frustration during the transition period; assessing and evaluating learners’ learning outcomes; entering thoughts with regard to their qualifications to teach online, the kind of training they need, and the ways necessary to be successful online instructors; meeting disciplinary concerns; and maintaining their own identities as instructors.

Teachers' attitudes toward online learning play a pivotal role in influencing the acceptance and adoption of technology in education [111]. noted that attitudes toward system use act as a full mediator of behavioral intention in adopting a system when attitudes are strong, while they partially mediate when attitudes are weak. Similarly [112], found that attitude significantly predicts the intention to use technology in education. Therefore, the finding that teachers' attitudes are generally ‘somewhat positive’ implies their intention and readiness to embrace online teaching and learning.

To fully embrace online teaching and effectively integrate technology into education, it is essential for teachers to possess the requisite skills and competence in utilizing technology for teaching and learning, as highlighted by Ref. [109]. Furthermore, the study's results indicate that teachers are characterized as being technologically 'competent'. This finding suggested that teachers are proficient in utilizing technology in their teaching practices.

Considering this [[54], [55], [56]], and [57] delineated the skills that online instructors should possess in their pedagogical repertoire. These skills include access to various technological resources and tools, such as emails, internet browsers, and learning management systems; an understanding of teaching-learning capabilities and limitations of these tools; knowledge of the technical aspects and procedural steps for creating e-content, such as digital books and educational videos; and updates to developments in educational technology and software.

Similarly [58], classified skills and competencies in teaching in environments within the digital purview, such as content, pedagogical, design, management and institutional, and societal and communication skills. However, these abilities are exceptionally vital because they go before the implementation of mobile learning, and educators who are skilled with technology carry out portable learning well within the bounds of the classroom [34]. Nevertheless [56], contended that there is a need to recognize jobs, qualities, capabilities, and abilities to such an extent that one becomes an equipped and successful internet-based educator. They contend that there is a need for a structure and rules that help educators increase their abilities and assist in planning sufficient preparation programs.

Furthermore [60], categorized the qualities and competencies necessary for online teaching as follows: (1) knowledge of the processes involved in the digital teaching domain; (2) technical skills; (3) communication skills used online; (4) expertise in the content; and (5) personal characteristics. After their investigation of 17 online learning programs, Dubins and Graham (2009) formulated eight competency categories: (1) skills for management systems utilizable for content; (2) other skills needed for technicalities; (3) instructional design; (4) social processes and presence; (5) managing of assessment; (6) student orientation; (7) institutional knowledge; and (8) pedagogy and andragogy. Others have concisely itemized online competencies as technological, personal, social, and pedagogical as an appendage to a group of capabilities connected with substance, plan, correspondence, and management [113].

Moreover [55,56], and [63] described several principles and strategies for amalgamating pedagogy and online teaching, such as learning theories; designing and implementing congruous instructional strategies; facilitating and organizing the participation of students; providing guidance and support to students; utilizing criterion-based evaluation and assessment; motivating and showing enthusiasm and interest to learners; encouraging the construction of knowledge premised on students' prior knowledge and experiences; nurturing students’ self-assessment and reflective work; and promoting interaction in groups, collaboration and teamwork.

Finally, the results in the abovementioned table revealed that teachers seem to have ‘no problem with access’, except for science teachers who disclosed having ‘limited technological access’. This means that Social Studies and Mathematics teachers are supported with technological equipment and tools for online teaching [88]. claimed that in their study, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) educators appraised themselves altogether better than did their capacity to craft and access lessons involving technology, as opposed to teachers in different areas of concentration. Hence [87], suggested that an upgrade of school technology is a significant factor in internet utilization.

The findings regarding teachers' attitudes toward online learning, access to technology, and technological competence significantly contribute to the adoption and utilization of online and flexible learning within the country. These results have implications for policymakers, stakeholders, and developers of teacher professional development programs. These stakeholders should pay close attention to these findings, as they can help expedite the integration of technology into teaching and learning, especially in developing countries and similar educational contexts [108].

4.2. Attitude, competence and access across genders

The raw data were processed and analyzed. To determine whether significant differences existed in the attitudes, competence, and access of the respondents across genders, an inferential statistical tool known as the independent-samples t-test was utilized. The analysis is shown in Table 2.

Table 2.

Attitude, competence, and access between male and female respondents.

Variables		Mean	SD	p value	Interpretation
Dependent	Independent
Attitude toward online teaching	Male	2.95	0.55	0.996	Not Significant
	Female	2.94	0.46
Technological Competence	Male	2.62	0.66	0.828	Not Significant
	Female	2.64	0.59
Technological Access	Male	2.42	0.48	0.432	Not Significant
	Female	2.53	0.42

Table 2 shows the teachers’ attitudes toward online teaching, technological competence, and access, which are treated for significant differences when grouped by gender. The t-test results reveal that the probability values at 0.996, 0.828, and 0.432 are all greater than the alpha value of 0.05. This infers that there is no significant difference between the male and female respondents across factors. In this way, gender truly essentially influences or determines the attitudes of teachers toward online teaching, technological competence, and access. Accordingly, gender does not fundamentally influence attitudes toward online teaching, technological competence, or access, and the influence of gender does not differ. This further implies that, regardless of the gender of the instructor, their attitudes toward online teaching, technological competence, and access do not significantly differ.

While previous research has explored gender differences in traditional physical synchronous platforms [40], there have also been studies investigating the relationship between gender and attitudes toward online education. In contrast to the findings of the current study [41], argued that male instructors exhibit more positive attitudes toward mobile learning than their female counterparts. Additionally, in contrast to the findings of the present study, findings from a study conducted in Saudi Arabia suggested that female instructors had a more positive outlook on mobile learning than male instructors did [42].

Moreover, in a study examining gender differences across four dimensions of attitude toward online education [114], female teachers demonstrated significantly greater responsiveness and appreciation for online education than male teachers did, which contradicts the findings of the current study. This observation is further supported by the findings of a previous study [115], which showed that female teachers reported greater self-efficacy in utilizing online instruction strategies than did their male counterparts. Consequently, female teachers may exhibit a greater interest in online teaching than male teachers [116]. However, regarding the dimensions of knowledge and proficiency in attitudes toward online education, there was no significant difference observed between male and female teachers in the current study. Furthermore [43], in their development of a unified theory of acceptance and utilization of technology and the examination of gender variation that serves as a moderator in the technology acceptance model, found that men had a greater tendency to be task-oriented where men were more focused on accomplishing a task [47]. found that female participants evinced more positive attitudes toward mobile learning than did their male counterparts [48]. remarked that male students benefit more from the utilization of technologies involving interactive communication to increase social presence, which can increase their satisfaction with learning online.

Regarding technological competence across genders, a study conducted by Ref. [117] revealed a significant difference between male and female teachers. Their findings indicated that female teachers exhibited greater technological competence than did their male counterparts, suggesting that gender plays a role in influencing technological competence. Furthermore, another study by Ref. [118] reported that female teachers displayed lower self-efficacy in terms of technological knowledge content and higher levels of perceived online teaching presence. However, regarding the other readiness constructs, no significant gender difference was observed.

In the context of online teaching and learning, male teachers in the study demonstrated a greater level of experience than female teachers did. Nevertheless [53], found no significant difference in attitudes toward mobile learning among teachers and students based on gender.

An earlier study by Ref. [116] suggested that female teachers may show more interest in online teaching due to the flexibility and convenience it offers. This result builds upon previous research that explored the experiences of females as learners in online education, highlighting the appeal of online education in accommodating the roles and addressing the personal and professional challenges faced by females. Moreover, differences across genders in readiness constructs can be attributed to variations in the mastery experience of online teaching and learning and perceived gender roles. Additionally, teachers' exposure to cultural and societal influences can shape their teaching practices and beliefs through the lens of gender roles, contributing to differences in their orientation toward mastery or performance in teaching.

The findings of this study hold important policy implications for promoting gender equity in education and addressing potential disparities in attitudes toward online teaching, technological competence, and access. First and foremost, it is recommended that training programs for educators be gender neutral, focusing on improving attitudes and competence without assuming gender-based differences. Initiatives should also be put in place to encourage more female educators to participate in online teaching and technology-related professional development, acknowledging that while this study found no significant gender differences, other research has highlighted potential benefits for females in online teaching. Additionally, there is a need to address perceived gender roles within the teaching profession by promoting awareness and providing resources to challenge stereotypes. Creating inclusive online learning environments that cater to the needs of all genders is crucial, as is investing in ongoing research and monitoring of gender-related issues in education. Promoting female role models in online teaching and technology leadership roles can inspire and mentor others, and highlighting the flexibility and work-life balance benefits of online teaching can attract educators, especially females. Finally, encouraging diversity in the technology sector to reflect the needs of all genders can result in products and resources that better serve the entire education community. These policy recommendations collectively aim to create a more inclusive and equitable educational landscape for all educators, irrespective of gender.

4.3. Correlation: attitude toward online teaching and technological competence and access

To determine whether a significant relationship could be drawn, the raw data were analyzed using the Pearson product moment coefficient, also known as the Pearson r. Table 3 shows the results of the analysis.

Table 3.

Significant relationship between respondents’ attitude toward online teaching and technological competence and access.

Variables		p value	r-value	Interpretation
Teachers' attitude toward online teaching	Teachers' Technological Competence	0.000∗	0.547	Significant
	Teachers' Technological Access	0.000∗	0.201	Significant

^∗Significant at α = 0.001 (2-tailed).

The above Table shows the analysis of the relationships between respondents' attitudes toward online teaching, technological competence, and access. The analysis revealed that there was a significant correlation between the variables (p value = 0.000 < α = 0.05). This means that an increase or decrease in respondents' technological competence and access significantly relates, in a direct relationship, to the attitude of teachers toward online teaching. Therefore, teachers’ attitudes toward online teaching may be influenced by their technological competence and access.

Hence, teachers' attitudes toward online teaching are closely linked to their technological competence and access to technology. As demonstrated in a study by Ref. [119], teachers' perceptions of the usefulness of online teaching, along with their level of preparation and proficiency in online instruction, are strong indicators of their positive attitudes toward online teaching and their willingness to implement related policies. This finding implies that teachers’ competence in technology and access to digital resources significantly influence their attitude toward online teaching. In essence, the more technologically competent a teacher is and the greater his or her access to technology and online resources, the more likely he or she is to hold a positive attitude toward online teaching.

Teachers’ attitudes toward the concept of online learning and their self-perceived readiness to teach online play a crucial role in policy implementation, as noted by Ref. [120]. Positive attitudes toward online teaching are positively associated with successful integration of technology, while negative attitudes and a lack of confidence on the part of teachers can hinder policy implementation. Therefore, it is essential for teachers to have a positive attitude toward online teaching, as research has shown that such attitudes are closely related to the actual use of technology in education and the intention of educators to employ it in their teaching practices [107].

This finding likewise suggests that educators are advancing toward accepting 21st century abilities and applying different ICTs in their instruction and student learning in an information age [5]. emphasized that successful pedagogy encompasses teachers’ broad understanding of how student learning can be realized through carefully designed learning content, assessment, and delivery of lessons using any e-platform as a medium for instruction. Additionally [6], claimed that handling these learning designs requires teachers to have extensive technical competence for proper management and implementation of this modality of learning.

The analysis in the above table underscores the significant relationship between teachers' attitudes toward online teaching, their technological competence, and access to technology. This interconnectedness highlights key policy implications for fostering effective online education.

First, recognizing that teachers' attitudes are influenced by their technological competence and access, policymakers should prioritize initiatives that enhance educators' digital skills and ensure equitable access to technology resources. Investing in teacher training programs and providing resources for improving technological competence can contribute to more positive attitudes toward online teaching.

Second, understanding that teachers' attitudes play a crucial role in policy implementation, it is imperative to focus on strategies that cultivate positive attitudes among educators. Policymakers should promote professional development opportunities that not only enhance technical skills but also emphasize the benefits and effectiveness of online teaching. Building teachers' confidence and competence in online instruction can lead to smoother policy implementation.

Moreover, as educators transition toward adopting 21st-century skills and integrating ICT into their teaching, it is essential to provide comprehensive support. Policymakers can facilitate this process by fostering a deep understanding of how technology can enhance student learning through well-designed content, assessment, and effective delivery. Ensuring that teachers have the technical competence to manage and implement online learning effectively is a critical component of successful policy implementation.

4.4. Correlation: teachers’ technological competence and access

To determine the significance of the associations between the variables (technological competence and access), the inferential statistic Pearson r was used to analyze the data. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

Correlation: Teachers’ technological competence and access.

Variables		p value	r-value	Interpretation
Teachers' Technological Competence	Teachers' Technological Access	0.205	0.703	Not Significant

The above Table shows the analysis of the relationships between the variables and teachers' technological competence and access. The analysis revealed that there was no significant correlation between the variables (p value = 0.205 < α = 0.01). This means that increases or decreases in technological competence are not significantly related to increases or decreases in access to technology. Therefore, based on the results, teachers’ technological competence does not influence their access to online teaching.

Despite the issues related to poor or no internet connectivity that seem to be a serious problem that concerns teachers such as Nigerian in-service teachers [89], this study lends support to Ref. [86], who argued that teachers can draw upon multifarious communication modalities integrated within the classroom for a better likelihood of viewership from the learner's end. This is in response to the students' preference for the utilization of multiple communication means, such as texting, email, message board and other multimedia technology platforms.

Correspondingly [87], concurred that an upgrade of school technology is a significant factor in Internet utilization. Empirical data taken from 205 teacher participants were used to analyze this topic; a concerted effort between the teacher and the school is most likely to aid in narrowing the digital divide in rural areas. From the teachers' end, it is the willingness to purchase personal computers, and from the school's, the provision of relevant professional development training to help augment the teachers' interest in the use of the Internet and enrich their knowledge. Nonetheless [88], reported that science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) educators appraise themselves altogether better than do teachers of different areas of concentration in terms of their capacity to craft and access lessons involving technology.

Hence, as mentioned earlier, there are some relevant concerns, such as the potential distractions and interruptions that may take place amidst an online session. However [90], noted that there are several helpful strategies for countering and/or mitigating issues related to these barriers. For distractions, the following are the potential solutions deemed doable by the authors: planning work sessions and predetermined or prearranged breaks, bomb countdown timer, limiting applications or programs, and staying focused. For interruptions, they present the following potential solutions: designating a physical workspace, establishing online teaching work hours, avoiding answering phone calls while on work sessions, and communicating and sticking to the plan.

The analysis of the relationship between teachers' technological competence and access to technology in the above table reveals that there is no significant correlation between these variables. This finding has several policy implications:

First, increasing teachers' technological competence does not automatically lead to improved access to technology. Therefore, policymakers need to address access issues separately from competence-building initiatives. In regions where internet connectivity is a challenge, such as in some rural areas, efforts should be made to provide reliable internet infrastructure and ensure equitable access for all educators.

Second, the study supports the idea that teachers can leverage various communication modalities within the classroom to enhance their learning experience, even in the absence of extensive online access. This implies that educators should be encouraged to utilize a mix of communication tools, including texting, email, message boards, and multimedia platforms, to engage students effectively.

Furthermore, the results emphasize the importance of upgrading school technology infrastructure. Schools should invest in modern technology to bridge the digital divide and provide teachers with the tools needed for effective teaching. Additionally, offering relevant professional development and training programs can boost teachers' interest in utilizing the internet and other digital resources for educational purposes.

It is worth noting that educators in STEM fields tend to have higher levels of confidence and competence in technology use. Policymakers can explore strategies to transfer this level of competence to educators in other disciplines, ensuring that all teachers are well equipped to integrate technology into their teaching practices.

In addressing potential distractions and interruptions during online sessions, policymakers can consider implementing guidelines and strategies recommended by experts. These may include establishing designated workspaces, setting work hours for online teaching, and providing support for teachers to manage distractions effectively.

5. Conclusion

The COVID-19 outbreak has apparently engendered a revolution in the delivery of instruction to education clientele—the learners. This has given rise to the inclusion of a digital asynchronous mode of delivery as a fundamental component of the very essence of education in the current situation. In this study, the participants exhibited a relatively positive attitude toward online teaching; additionally, as a result of the efforts of the teachers themselves, the core stakeholders, and the heads of the different relevant offices and agencies, they had to be fortified for sustenance; and, more importantly, furthering of the positive attitude of teachers toward online teaching, demonstrating that there is no gender affectation, as this may have either an auspicious effect on learning or, at the other end of the spectrum, an unfavorable effect.

This support and aid are extremely consequential, as teachers' attitudes toward online teaching are influenced by their technological competence and access, which thus implies that imponderable professional development activities and the certainty of accessibility must be given centrifugal attention. Subsequently, the respondents regarded themselves as competent technologically, which also required a more dynamic support system from the relevant higher offices, likewise, for continuance and even for the advancement of the foregoing competence. The teachers in the study disclosed that their access to the Internet does not pose an issue whatsoever is something encouraging, but the challenges concerning online learning need precisely the same amount of attention as the learners' access likewise necessitates consideration. Basically, teachers' attitudes, technological competence, and access to pedagogical digital-based tasks form a part and parcel of the success of the educative enterprise in today's unprecedented obstructions in the attempt to keep the education sector mobilizing and its clientele in persevering learning progress.

Data availability statement

The data generated and analyzed in this scholarly endeavor are securely maintained at the Research, Utilization, Publication, and Information Dissemination Center of the Western Mindanao State University. Moreover, the data used in this research are accessible and available upon formal request, subject to approval by the institutional authorities and adherence to ethical and legal considerations.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Ericson Alieto: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Project administration, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Bernadeth Abequibel: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Edison Estigoy: Writing – original draft, Validation, Conceptualization. Keir Balasa: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Data curation. Abee Eijansantos: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Angel Torres-Toukoumidis: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.