Table 1.
Characteristics of study participants
| Variable | Women | Men | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 16 to 49 years old | 50 years and older | 16 to 49 years old | 50 years and older | |
| Age (years) | 29.9 (29.4–30.4)a | 58.7 (57.7–59.7)b | 29.6 (28.9–30.3)a | 60.0 (58.7–61.3)b |
| Blood hemoglobin (g/L) | 129.2 (128.3–130.1)b | 126.9 (125.9–128.7)a | 144.8 (143.5–146.1)d | 136.9 (134.4–139.4)c |
| Serum ferritin (µg/L)1 | 27.2 (25.2–29.2)a | 58.9 (52.8–65.7)b | 52.1 (47.1–57.7)b | 64.0 (53.6–76.4)b |
| Anemia (%) | ||||
| Yes | 20.3 (16.8–23.9)b | 30.6 (24.1–37.2)c | 11.4 (7.3–15.4)a | 30.5 (21.8–39.2)bc |
| Iron deficiency (%) | ||||
| Yes | 32.6 (28.7–36.6)b | 7.2 (3.4–11.0)a | 10.4 (6.6–14.3)a | 9.6 (3.7–15.5)a |
| Proximal factors | ||||
| Serum vitamin D (nmol/L) | 61.5 (59.4–63.6)a | 105.9 (100.0–111.9)b | 63.2 (60.3–66.0)a | 97.9 (91.1–104.8)b |
| Serum vitamin B12 (pmol/L) | 409.7 (399.6–419.7)b | 469.7 (445.7–493.7)c | 377.2 (362.9–391.5)a | 420.1 (389.6–450.6)ab |
| RBC folate (nmol/L) | 719.6 (708.8–730.5)a | 732.6 (712.1–753.0)a | 784.1 (766.4–801.8)b | 787.9 (753.0–822.8)b |
| Blood total mercury (nmol/L)1 | 43.2 (40.2–46.5)b | 75.8 (68.1–84.3)c | 32.1 (28.0–36.7)a | 64.3 (53.7–76.8)c |
| Blood total lead (µmol/L)1 | 0.10 (0.09–0.10)a | 0.19 (0.18–0.21)c | 0.12 (0.11–0.13)b | 0.19 (0.17–0.22)c |
| Blood total selenium (µmol/L) | 4.7 (4.4–4.9)b | 5.5 (5.0–5.9)c | 3.7 (3.4–4.0)a | 4.9 (4.2–5.7)bc |
| RBC n-3 LC-PUFA (% of total fatty acids)2 | 7.4 (7.3–7.6)b | 9.5 (9.2–9.9)c | 6.5 (6.3–6.8)a | 9.2 (8.7–9.8)c |
| Urinary cotinine (ng/mL) | 1180 (1120–1240)b | 899 (800–997)a | 1150 (1063–1236)b | 767 (643–891)a |
| hs-CRP (%) | ||||
| ≥ 3 mg/L | 24.7 (21.0–28.3)ab | 29.7 (23.0–36.3)b | 18.7 (13.8–23.5)a | 30.0 (21.6–38.4)b |
| H. pylori serology (%) | ||||
| Positive | 73.8 (70.2–77.4)c | 51.7 (44.4–58.9)a | 82.9 (78.6–87.2)d | 63.8 (55.3–72.2)b |
| Distal factors | ||||
| Obesity (%) | ||||
| WC > cut-off | 61.9 (57.8–65.9)c | 63.0 (56.0–70.1)c | 20.1 (15.2–25.1)a | 40.7 (31.0–50.3)b |
| Food insecurity (%) | ||||
| Yes | 77.8 (74.2–81.4)b | 69.2 (61.8–76.5)a | 82.5 (77.7–87.3)b | 75.6 (67.8–83.4)ab |
| Socioeconomic index (0–1) | 0.38 (0.36–0.40) | 0.38 (0.34–0.42) | 0.35 (0.33–0.37) | 0.36 (0.32–0.40) |
| Country food rich in iron, frequency index (0–7)3 | 1.66 (1.63–1.69)a | 1.73 (1.66–1.80)ab | 1.84 (1.78–1.90)b | 1.76 (1.68–1.84)ab |
| Hot beverages, frequency index (0–7)3 | 2.44 (2.38–2.50)a | 3.10 (2.98–3.21)c | 2.73 (2.63–2.84)b | 3.29 (3.13–3.45)c |
| Alcohol consumption (%) | ||||
| ≥ 1 drinks/day | 44.9 (40.5–49.3) | 39.0 (29.8–48.1) | 38.2 (32.3–44.0) | 34.3 (23.8–44.9) |
| Antacid medication (%) | ||||
| Yes | 1.7 (0.7–2.8)a | 9.0 (5.5–12.4)b | 1.0 (0.1–1.9)a | 11.8 (6.2–17.4)b |
Arithmetic mean and percentage (95% CI). WC = waist circumference; WC cut-off: M > 102 cm, W > 88 cm. a, b, c, d, estimates with different letters are statistically different between groups based on t test with Tukey–Kramer correction for continuous variables and χ2 test for categorical variables
1Geometric mean presented
2Sum of EPA, DHA, and DPA expressed as % of total fatty acids
3Food frequency index based on FFQ