Table 2.

Subgroup analyses of the included studies (n=16).

Subgroup analysis			References		Studies, n (%)		Sample size		Effect estimates (95% CI)		P value		I2 (%)
Intervention
	Diet	Tang et al [24] Zhou et al [27] Kang and Sung [28] Kennelly et al [36]		4 (25)		844		0.61 (0.29-1.28)		.19		61
	Exercise	Ferrara et al [30] Seneviratne et al [34]		2 (12)		463		1.11 (0.57-2.17)		.76		0
	Both	Chen [22] Li [23] Cao [25] Wu and Guang [26] Ding et al [29] Liu et al [31] Dodd et al [32] Simmons et al [33] Poston et al [35] Sagedal et al [37]		10 (62)		6044		0.71 (0.51-0.99)		.05		74
mHealtha technology
	Phone	Ferrara et al [30] Simmons et al [33] Poston et al [35] Sagedal et al [37] Liu et al [31] Dodd et al [32]		6 (38)		4822		1.08 (0.92-1.26)		.37		1
	App	Chen [22] Tang et al [24] Cao [25] Wu and Guang [26] Zhou et al [27] Kang and Sung [28] Ding et al [29] Kennelly et al [36]		8 (50)		1455		0.55 (0.37-0.83)		.004		44
	Computer	Li [23] Seneviratne et al [34]		2 (12)		1074		0.72 (0.14-3.74)		.69		71
Provider
	Dietitian	Ding et al [29] Dodd et al [32]		2 (12)		2368		0.84 (0.36-2.00)		.70		86
	Exercise physiologists	Seneviratne et al [34]		1 (6)		74		2.12 (0.36-12.36)		.40		N/Ab
	Obstetricians	Chen [22] Li [23] Tang et al [24] Cao [25] Wu and Guang [26] Zhou et al [27] Kang and Sung [28] Ferrara et al [30] Liu et al [31] Simmons et al [33] Poston et al [35] Kennelly et al [36] Sagedal et al [37]		13 (81)		4909		0.69 (0.51-0.93)		.02		60
Duration
	Short term	Zhou et al [27] Liu et al [31] Poston et al [35]		3 (19)		1601		0.60 (0.26-1.39)		.24		61
	Medium to long term	Chen [22] Li [23] Wu and Guang [26] Kang and Sung [28] Ding et al [29] Ferrara et al [30] Dodd et al [32] Simmons et al [33] Seneviratne et al [34] Kennelly et al [36] Sagedal et al [37]		11 (69)		5518		0.77 (0.53-1.10)		.15		72
	Long term	Tang et al [24] Cao [25]		2 (12)		232		0.62 (0.35-1.12)		.11		0
Ethnicity
	Asian	Chen [22] Li [23] Tang et al [24] Cao [25] Wu and Guang [26] Zhou et al [27] Kang and Sung [28] Ding et al [29]		8 (50)		1957		0.44 (0.34-0.58)		<.001		0
	White	Ferrara et al [30] Liu et al [31] Dodd et al [32] Simmons et al [33] Seneviratne et al [34] Poston et al [35] Kennelly et al [36] Sagedal et al [37]		8 (50)		5394		1.09 (0.93-1.26)		.29		0
GDMc diagnostic criteria
	IADPSGd	Chen [22] Li [23] Cao [25] Zhou et al [27] Kang and Sung [28] Ding et al [29] Seneviratne et al [34] Poston et al [35] Kennelly et al [36]		9 (56)		3533		0.58 (0.39-0.86)		.007		69
	WHOe	Simmons et al [33] Sagedal et al [37]		2 (12)		783		1.20 (0.78-1.86)		.41		0
	ADPSCf	Dodd et al [32]		1 (6)		2153		1.26 (0.98-1.63)		.08		N/A
	Carpenter-Coustan criteria	Ferrara et al [30]		1 (6)		389		0.99 (0.48-2.05)		.99		N/A

^amHealth: mobile health.

^bN/A: not applicable.

^cGDM: gestational diabetes mellitus.

^dIADPSG: International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups.

^eWHO: World Health Organization.

^fADPSC: Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society criteria.