Table 1.

Vulnerability attributes associated with adverse outcomes during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period in systematic reviews (see Appendix 4 for full characteristics of included studies and references).

Vulnerability attribute	Early pregnancy	Late pregnancy	Childbirth	Other outcomes
Threat: deficiencies
Anaemia		Small for gestational age Low birthweight Preterm birth Pre-eclampsia	Neonatal mortality Postpartum haemorrhage Infection after caesarean section
Calcium deficiency		Pre-eclampsia
Socioeconomic status		Stillbirth Preterm birth Low birthweight
Homelessness	Access to antenatal care	Preterm birth Low birthweight	Birth complications including pre-eclampsia, chorioamnionitis, placental abruption, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, iron deficiency or other anaemia
Threat: risk exposure
Intimate partner violence	Miscarriage Access to antenatal care Termination of pregnancy	Pre-eclampsia Preterm birth Low birthweight Stillbirth	Neonatal mortality Perinatal depression	Postnatal depressive symptoms
Disasters	Access to antenatal care (pandemic)	Stillbirth (pandemic) Pre-eclampsia (terrorist attack) Low birthweight (terrorist attack; natural disasters; wildfires)	Reduced institutional delivery (pandemic) Neonatal mortality (pandemic) Perinatal depression (earthquakes)	Psychosis
Political instability/Fragile and conflict-affected state (FCAS)	Access to antenatal service	Stillbirth Low birthweight		Congenital birth defects
Substance misuse		Low birthweight Preterm birth
Alcohol		Low birthweight Placenta abruption
Smoking	Miscarriage	Stillbirth	Neonatal mortality
Mental health		Low birthweight Preterm birth
Barriers
Adolescent pregnancy	Anaemia	Pre-eclampsia Preterm birth Low birthweight	Fetal distress Obstructed labour
Religion and culture		Low birthweight (fasting mothers) Lower placental weight in fasting mothers	Prolonged labour (Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)) Instrumental delivery (FGM) Postpartum haemorrhage (FGM) Perineal tears (FGM) Fetal distress (FGM) Complications (peripartum hysterectomy; uterine rupture; prolonged labour) associated with faith-based institutions (e.g., spiritual churches)
Low education	Access to antenatal care Childhood pregnancies Unintended pregnancies	Stillbirth Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy Anaemia	Neonatal mortality Preparation for birth and emergencies	Breastfeeding
Primigravida or grand multiparity		Pre-eclampsia (primigravida) Gestational diabetes	Postpartum haemorrhage Perinatal depression Uterine rupture
Migrants	Access to antenatal care Miscarriage	Pre-eclampsia Low birthweight Gestational diabetes Small for gestational age Stillbirth Preterm birth	Neonatal mortality Maternal mortality	Infection Caesarean section
Refugees	Miscarriage Access to antenatal service	Stillbirth Preterm birth	Neonatal mortality Maternal death (hypertensive disorders, deep vein thrombosis and pre-eclampsia)	Mental health conditions
Child marriage			Reduced institutional delivery	Intimate partner violence