Table 4.

Chemical compounds isolated from different parts of Aster flaccidus and their biological activities.

S. No	Compounds	Parts used	Dose	Bioactivity	Mechanism	Models	IC50/ID50/p-values
1	2-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-vicodiol	Aerial [58]
2	10-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-oplopanone
3	α-spinasterol		5–100 μg/mL	Anticholinesterase activity [62]	Inhibited the acetylcholinesterase enzyme (obtained from brain homogenate) activity	NA	IC50 value, 44.19 ± 2.59 μg/mL
			3–100 μM	Anti-inflammatory [60]	Suppressed the LPS-induced expression of COX-1 and COX-2 activities expressed in prostaglandin levels (in ng/mL)	Male Swiss mice	IC50 value, 16.17 μM (COX-1 inhibition) and 7.8 μM (COX-2 inhibition)
			40 μM	Anti-inflammatory [68]	Significantly suppressed the production of NO, PGE2, TNF, and IL-1β by LPS-stimulated cells through ERK pathway-dependent expression of HO-1	BV2 microglial cells and mouse hippocampal HT22 cells	*P < 0.05.
			0.24 μM/kg	Antihyperalgesic activity [66]	Inhibited carrageenan-induced hyperalgesia in mice	Female Swiss mice	42 ± 6 % inhibition
			0.3 μM/kg	Antioedematogenic effect [65]	Inhibited edema produced in capsaicin-induced nociceptive	Male albino Swiss mice	66 ± 10 % inhibition; ID50 value, 0.11 μM/kg
			26.93 μg/mL (for DPPH assay); 35.16 μg/mL (for ABTS assay)	Antioxidant [62]	Scavenged DPPH- and ABTS-free radicals	NA	26.93 ± 0.0 % and 35.16 ± 0.26 %
			0.3 μM/kg	Antinociceptive [65]	Inhibited nociception in capsaicin-induced nociceptive mice model	Male albino Swiss mice	58 ± 4 % inhibition
			0.3 mg/kg	Antinociceptive [66]	Inhibited reserpine-induced mechanical allodynia in mice	Male Swiss mice	73 % inhibition
			0.001–10 mg/kg	Antinociceptive [67]	Inhibited acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction	Male Swiss mice	IC50, 99 ± 1 % and ID50 value, 0.07 (0.05–0.09 mg/kg)
			50 mg/kg	Anti-ulcer [66]	Reduced the percentage of ulcer	Female Swiss mice	71 %
			5 mg/kg	Antitumour [69]	Reduced testosterone propionate-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in rats	Wistar-Unilever rats	P < 0.05
			15.0 μg/0.2 mL acetone	Antitumour [70]	Reduced the number and incidence of croton oil-induced mouse skin tumours	Swiss Webster albino mice	Reduced incidence of skin tumours by 55.6 % and tumour numbers by 65.0 %.
			10–80 nM/mL	Anti-proliferative [71]	Inhibited cell proliferation	Human colorectal adenocarcinoma CACO-2 cells	60.0 ± 7.10 nM/mL
			12.5–100.0 μg/mL	Anti-proliferative [72]	Inhibited cell proliferation	HeLa and RAW 264.7 cells	IC50 values, 77.1 ± 2.1 μg/mL (HeLa cells); 69.2 ± 6 μg/mL (RAW 264.7 cells)
			5–100 μg/mL	Anti-diabetic [62]	Inhibited α-glucosidase enzyme activity	NA	IC50 value, 8.65 ± 1.71 μg/mL
			2 mg/kg	Anti-diabetic [73]	Reduced blood sugar level in hyperglycaemic rats	Male Wistar strain rats	22.01 % reduction
			2.5–10 μM	Anti-diabetic [64]	Increased glucose uptake by mouse skeletal muscle cells	Mouse myoblast C2C12 cells	P < 0.01
					Enhanced the secretion of insulin in pancreatic β-cells in response to high glucose	Rat insulinoma INS-1 cells
4	α-spinasterol-β-d-glucopyranoside tetraacetate		NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
5	lariciresinol 9-O-β-d-glucopyranoside		NA	Anti-cancer [74]	Cytotoxic against human breast cancer cell lines	Human breast cancer cell lines (Bt549, MCF7, MDA-MB-231 and HCC70)	IC50 value, 24.81 μM
6	alaschanioside A			NA	NA	NA	NA
7	alangilignoside D		NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
8	syringaresinol		25–100 μM	Anti-inflammatory [61]	Inhibited protein and mRNA expressions of LPS-stimulated iNOS, COX-2, NF-κB, NO, and PGE2, TNF, IL-1β, and IL-6 production	RAW264.7 cells	P < 0.01–0.05
			50 mg/kg	Anti-inflammatory [61]	Reduced carrageenin-induced paw edema volume (mL)	ICR mice	P < 0.01
			50 mg/kg		Reduced carrageenin-induced paw edema volume (mL)	ICR mice	P < 0.01
			100 μM	Cytotoxicity [75]	Cytotoxic	Hepatoblastoma cells (HepG2) and human colorectal adenocarcinoma (HT29) cells	Non-significant
			NA	Anti-diabetic [63]	Inhibited α-glucosidase enzyme activity	NA	IC50 value, 19.5 ± 0.2 μg/mL
			20 μM	Antiphotoaging [76]	Inhibited UVA-induced upregulation of MMP-1 by suppressing MAPK/AP-1 signaling and enhanced collagen production	UVA-irradiated human HaCaT keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts (HDFs)	Reduced the level of MMP-1 (induced by UVA) from 8.16 ng/mL to 2.56 ng/mL and from 2.28 ng/mL to 1.37 ng/mL in HaCaT keratinocytes and HDFs, respectively.
9	2,6-dimethoxy-4-(2-propenyl)-phenyl-β-D-glucoside		NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
10	(7′R, 8S)-9′-lariciresinol-(α-methyl)-butanoate	Roots [15]	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
11	5,9-dimethoxyl-7-(α-methyl)-butanoxyl-phenyl-2E-propenol-(α-methyl)-butanoate		NA	Anti-tumour [15]	Exhibited anti-cancer activity against human liver carcinoma cells	Human liver carcinoma, BEL 7402 cells	IC50 values, 106.67 ± 8.47 μM at 24 h, 50.51 ± 6.11 μM at 72 h

In the “dose” column, “mg/kg, μM/kg” represents the oral/parenteral dose of the compound in mice/rats; concentration units (μg/mL, nM/mL) represent the concentration of the compound in the cell treatment. ABTS - 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid; COX – cyclooxygenase; DPPH – 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; ERK – extracellular signal-regulated kinase; HaCaT – cultured human keratinocyte (cells); HeLa – Lack's cervical cancer cells; HO-1 – heme oxygenase-1; IC₅₀ – the half-maximal inhibitory concentration; ID₅₀ – infectious dose 50; ICR – institute of cancer research; IL – interleukins; iNOS – inducible nitric oxide synthase; LPS – lipopolysaccharide; MMP-1 – matrix metalloproteinases; MAPK/AP-1 – mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK)/activator protein-1 (AP-1); mRNA – messenger ribonucleic acid; NA – not available/not tested; NF-κB – nuclear factor kappa B; NO – nitric oxide; PGE2 – prostaglandins E2; RAW 264.7 – macrophage-like, Abelson leukemia virus-transformed cell line derived from Balb/c mice; TNF – tumour necrosis factor.