Table 3.
Model | Overall Population | Normoglycemic | Prediabetic | Diabetic | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β(SE) | P | β(SE) | P | β(SE) | P | All | Untreated | Treated | ||||||
β(SE) | P | β(SE) | P | Metformin | Insulin | |||||||||
β(SE) | P | β(SE) | P | |||||||||||
N = 14,555a | N = 5,892a | N = 5,419a | N = 3,006a | N = 1,498a | N = 1,236a | N = 369a | ||||||||
HOMA-IR | ||||||||||||||
1 | −0.15 (0.07) | .04 | −0.07 (0.09) | .48 | −0.15 (0.12) | .20 | −0.17 (0.15) | .26 | 0.08 (0.18) | .67 | −0.48 (0.21) | .02 | 0.05 (0.43) | .90 |
2 | −0.11 (0.07) | .10 | −0.04 (0.09) | .65 | −0.10 (0.12) | .38 | −0.13 (0.14) | .35 | 0.06 (0.17) | .71 | −0.34 (0.22) | .12 | 0.003 (0.41) | .99 |
3 | −0.04 (0.05) | .46 | 0.2 (0.07) | .77 | −0.05 (0.09) | .65 | −0.12 (0.12) | .23 | 0.02 (0.13) | .90 | −0.29 (0.21) | .17 | −0.10 (0.48) | .84 |
HOMA-%β | ||||||||||||||
1 | −0.07 (0.07) | .30 | −0.08 (0.09) | .39 | −0.18 (0.13) | .16 | 0.14 (0.17) | .15 | 0.41 (0.20) | .04 | −0.11 (0.24) | .66 | 0.06 | 0.57 |
.2 | −0.04 (0.07) | .53 | −0.06 (0.09) | .53 | −0.12 (0.12) | .30 | 0.27 (0.16) | .10 | 0.39 (0.19) | .04 | 0.001 (0.24) | .99 | 0.14 (0.52) | .79 |
3 | 0.02 (0.05) | .71 | 0.004 (0.06) | .95 | −0.07 (0.10) | .50 | 0.29 (0.15) | .05 | 0.33 (0.18) | .06 | 0.06 (0.23) | .78 | 0.07 (0.55) | .90 |
Fasting glucose | ||||||||||||||
1 | −0.07 (0.05) | .13 | 0.01 (0.05) | .78 | 0.03 (0.08) | .69 | −0.27 (0.12) | .03 | −0.17 (0.15) | .23 | −0.24 (0.19) | .20 | −0.25 (0.60) | .68 |
2 | −0.07 (0.05) | .15 | 0.02 (0.05) | .66 | 0.04 (0.08) | .62 | −0.27 (0.12) | .02 | −0.17 (0.14) | .25 | −0.24 (0.18) | .20 | −0.36 (0.56) | .51 |
3 | −0.05 (0.04) | .37 | 0.03 (0.05) | .50 | 0.05 (0.08) | .55 | −0.27 (0.12) | .02 | −0.17 (0.14) | .23 | −0.25 (0.18) | .18 | −0.42 (0.54) | .44 |
Fasting Insulin | ||||||||||||||
N = 14,517a | N = 5,886a | N = 5,411a | N = 3,003a | N = 1,493a | N = 1,231a | N = 351a | ||||||||
1 | −0.13 (0.07) | .08 | −0.07 (0.10) | .47 | −0.17 (0.13) | .18 | −0.03 (0.16) | .82 | 0.23 (0.19) | .21 | −0.42 (0.20) | .03 | −0.01 (0.34) | .98 |
2 | −0.10 (0.07) | .17 | −0.05 (010) | .63 | −0.12 (0.13) | .35 | 0.01 (0.15) | .98 | 0.22 (0.18) | .22 | −0.28 (0.21) | .18 | −0.03 (0.34) | .93 |
3 | −0.02 (0.05) | .72 | 0.02 (0.07) | .79 | −0.05 (0.10) | .61 | 0.03 (0.12) | .81 | 0.16 (0.13) | .25 | −0.21 (0.19) | .27 | −0.12 (0.41) | .77 |
2-h OGTT Glucose | ||||||||||||||
N = 11,991a | N = 5,625a | N = 5,191a | – | N = 989a | – | – | ||||||||
1 | −0.09 (0.05) | .08 | −0.03 (0.06) | .65 | −0.06 (0.07) | .42 | – | – | 0.18 (0.17) | .31 | – | – | – | – |
2 | −0.08 (0.05) | .11 | −0.02 (0.06) | .70 | −0.05 (0.08) | .54 | – | – | 0.19 (0.16) | .24 | – | – | – | – |
3 | −0.05 (0.05) | .27 | −0.01 (0.06 | .89 | −0.04 (0.08) | .64 | – | – | −/20 (0.16) | .23 | – | – | – | – |
2-h OGTT Insulin | ||||||||||||||
N = 11,966a | N = 5,607a | N = 5,183a | – | N = 989a | – | – | ||||||||
1 | −0.05 (0.06) | .39 | 0.01 (0.09) | .91 | −0.15 (0.09) | .10 | – | – | 0.62 (0.24) | .01 | – | – | – | – |
2 | −0.03 (0.06) | .65 | 0.03 (0.09) | .76 | −0.11 (0.08) | .19 | – | – | 0.62 (0.23) | .01 | – | – | – | – |
3 | 0.02 (0.05) | .70 | 0.06 (0.07) | .40 | −0.07 (0.08) | .34 | – | – | 0.63 (0.22) | .004 | – | – | – | – |
Insulinogenic Index | ||||||||||||||
1 | 0.16 (0.07) | .03 | 0.27 (0.10) | .01 | −0.09 (0.10) | .37 | – | – | 0.42 0.18) | .02 | – | – | – | – |
2 | 0.17 (0.07) | .02 | 0.27 (0.10) | .01 | −0.05 (0.10) | .55 | – | – | 0.42 (0.18) | .02 | – | – | – | |
3 | 0.19 (0.07) | .01 | 0.29 (0.09) | .002 | −0.04 (0.09) | .66 | – | – | 0.43 (0.17) | .01 | – | – | – |
Note: Significant results (P < 0.05) in bold.
Abbreviations: HOMA-%β: Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance β cell function; HOMA-IR: Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance; OGTT: Oral glucose tolerance test.
Model 1 includes age, gender, energy intake (kilocalories/day), education level, acculturation, and Hispanic/Latino heritage as covariates (minimally adjusted model).
Model 2 includes the covariates from model 1, with the addition of alcohol intake, physical activity (metabolic equivalent minutes/day), diet quality (alternative Healthy Eating Index [aHEI] score) and smoking status (fully adjusted model).
Model 3 includes the covariates from model 2, with the addition of body mass index (BMI; fully adjusted + BMI model).
Unweighted frequency.