A comprehensive review of recent developments in smart grid through renewable energy resources integration

Abstract

Energy generation and management are relevant for both utilities and electricity users, and they can be improved by incorporating sophisticated technology on smart grid. This opens up the possibility of transforming existing industries into a new era of enhanced networks that will give an intelligent, responsive, and bi-directional automatic management system for power generation, transmission, and distribution. The traditional grid is transitioning from a centralized generation structure to a more dispersed smart grid structure. In order to build this new decentralized structure, loads must be fully integrated into the grid and adequately separated from the main grid. The smart grid allows for the integration of loads that are clean, cost-effective, and efficient. The growing level of distributed generation (DG) integration puts the grid under strain, resulting in perturbations with dynamic responses. This paper discussed a detailed review of current developments in smart grid through the integration of renewable energy resources (RERs) into the grid. The purpose of this study is to present a comprehensive, up-to-date review of RERs integration on grid to evaluate research directions, progress, challenges, and potential solutions. It focuses on the concepts and structure of smart grids, followed by an in-depth examination of smart grid overview, energy sources, inertia issues, and applications. This evaluation will assist other researchers investigating smart grid energy resources in identifying research problems and gaps.

1. Introduction

In developing countries, solar energy is used to meet individual and societal energy demands in order to achieve balance and progress. Electricity transmission for a sustainable energy future leans towards renewable energy resources (RERs) and Electric Vehicles [1]. To improve efficiency, security, economy, and dependability, the distribution and transmission grids must be updated. An effective communication and control technology is introduced on traditional grid and it improves the efficiency of both the distribution and transmission grid. Smart metering, faster problem diagnosis, and improved network operation and administration are transforming the traditional grid [2]. Renewable energy power has lately increased, and this has given renewable energy a vital role in future energy. Integrating different renewable energy sources (RESs) such as solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind into the electricity system is quite complex. Recent changes in the pricing elements of energy marketing and designs necessitate coordination of the RESs management strategy by the electric market structure [3]. However, Sunlight, wind, Fuel Cells energy will exist for a very long time, renewable sources are limitless. With the growth of solar power vehicles (Electric Vehicles), lights, and residences, solar energy has a wide range of applications and has significantly boost the usage [4]. Renewable energy technologies do not compete economically with traditional fuel technology, hence budgets and funds for renewable energy are limited. Some RESs are either stand-alone or grid-connected, while others are hybrids that combine stand-alone and grid-connected features. Renewable energy technologies have more communication challenges than energy from non-renewable sources [5,6].

As technology advance, smart grid energy storage systems and technology became more polished. Plug-in hybrid electric cars (PHEVs), battery energy storage systems (BESS), energy storage systems (ESSs), and plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) are among them. This technology replaced traditional hydrocarbon-powered electric vehicle transportation. They are being integrated into the existing network in order to address the ongoing growth in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and make it smarter. The RESs differs from typical energy sources in terms of output variables [7,8]. Despite extensive study on renewable energy, no specific definition of smart grid has been established. The Electric Power Research Institute defines smart grid as the addition of a unified communications and control system to existing power distribution infrastructure in order to give correct information [9]. The importance of information and communication technology (ICT) in exposing the potentials of the energy sector with value-added services is highlighted. Nonetheless, the authors in Refs. [[10], [11], [12], [13], [14]] have differing perspectives on smart grid. A smart grid is required for improved energy control, the integration of renewable energy sources, and the response to surges in energy demand [15]. Renewable energy sources (RES) are more sustainable, reliable, and cost effective than non-renewable energy sources (NRES). Despite its high installation costs, solar PV has gained broad interest, particularly in rural areas where power supply is low or consumers struggle to pay for the electricity they use. Today, biomass is a popular and widely used renewable energy source [3]. Table 1 shows a comparison of the conventional grid system and the smart grid [16].

Table 1.

Difference between Conventional grid and Smart Grid.

S/No.	Topic of Discussion	Conventional Grid	Smart Grid
1.	Consumers Desire	The traditional approach does not allow customers to choose how they acquire electricity.	The smart grid provides customers with access to a range of power sources.
2.	Distribution System	As a result, unidirectional power transmission is required. Power from primary plants is distributed using traditional power infrastructure.	This enables electricity supply in both directions. A supplementary power source provides electricity to customers.
3.	Power Plants Monitoring	Manual monitoring is utilized for energy distribution.	This device employs cutting-edge technology and can self-monitor in order to reduce power outages.
4.	Method of Energy Control	Energy suppliers have little control over the energy they supply.	Because of smart grid technologies and sensors, power corporations have better control over electricity distribution.
5.	Power Restoration and Maintenance	Personnel physically travel to the location of the distribution system breakdown for maintenance and repair to minimize a prolonged power outage.	Smart grid technology uses sensors to detect and repair anomalies without the need for a physical presence.
6.	Technological Aspects	Traditional grids use electromechanical power, resulting in limited internal regulation and communication.	Smart grids employ digital technologies to give devices autonomy and proper communication.
7.	Addition of Sensors	Because infrastructures cannot control them properly, this makes use of a restricted number of sensors. This makes detecting a flaw harder.	The smart grid enables the installation of multiple sensors along the line, which aids in fault detection.

In its most comprehensive sense, the term “smart grid” refers to an updated power grid that makes use of communication, sensors, computers, and automation in order to improve the effectiveness, dependability, and safety of the power system. It gives people who use electricity the ability to control how they use electricity and, as a result, it effectively lowers electricity rates by reducing the amount of energy used. Some authors emphasize that smart grid is comprised of a large number of renewable energy sources that collaborate with one another to achieve optimal system performance [17]. This optimal system performance will improve consumers' interest in the system and will benefit the environment. The Department of Energy in the United States of America (USA) defines a smart grid as an automated, delivery, and integrated energy network that allows for bidirectional power flow. It maintains important information that is capable of monitoring consumers' preferences to particular appliances while simultaneously monitoring the network from the point of generation all the way to the point of supply of electricity [18]. The authors of [19] state that the most essential aspects of a smart grid are appropriate automation, information dissemination, and communication technology. They believe that these aspects are the most crucial. Consequently, this helps in the collecting of data to improve the system's efficiency, dependability, and the environmentally friendly generation, transmission, and distribution of power. The entirety of the smart grid architecture can be seen in Fig. 1 [19].

Fig. 1.

The communication architecture of smart grid.

Bruno et al. and Momoh proved in their research that the use of renewable energy sources for smart grids is considerably different from the usage of traditional energy sources due to the intermittent and variable character of their energy output [7,8]. The intermittent nature of renewable energy sources (RES) can be mitigated by utilizing a large number of renewable energy sources (RES) and energy storage systems (ESS) as backup sources. If the intermittent power supply continues, the voltage profile will decline, the power grid's efficiency will deteriorate, and the transformer's on-load tap changer control system would be disrupted. It is feasible to achieve optimal energy flow and management by connecting a variety of energy sources and storage devices to the grid. To integrate renewable energy sources into the grid and ensure that they are used to their full capacity, an energy management system (EMS) is necessary. This will have the impact of minimizing harmonics and improving load continuity as well as the stability of the electricity network in all circumstances [[20], [21]].

The goal of this study is to make a contribution by offering a thorough examination of current developments in smart grid technology. Integration of diverse energy sources, technologies, intelligent communication, control, and other innovations for the future generation of smart grids are among these enhancements. This study summarizes the findings of an in-depth examination and evaluation of recent research papers published on this topic in the last seven years. The goal of this project is to assess the current status of publications published in reputable journals, to identify and highlight research gaps within these articles, and to provide solutions or proposals to improve RES coordination in order to facilitate the efficient communication of future energy grids.

The following sections of this work are organized as follows. section 2 presents an overall view of the smart grid, focusing on the problems and difficulties brought about by the integration of RERs. In section 3, we covered the various energy sources and methods that can be employed to maximize the benefits of a smart grid. This section 4 of this paper discusses solar energy generating. Solar power plants received a lot of attention, namely its use in the solar chimney and the concentrated solar plant. Emphasis was made on the community microgrid, the participation of some prosumers, and the sharing of energy. In the part that follows, we analyzed smart grid technologies and how they can be applied to smart homes and buildings. The key emphasis of this technological advancement inquiry is the installation of energy management systems (EMS). Section 5 looks into the feasibility of employing virtual power plants (VPP) as a viable medium for integrating renewable energy resources on smart networks. This section also explores the ramifications of various uses for the international VPP industry. Section 6 examines the integration of electric vehicles onto smart networks, with a major focus on energy transfer to the grid via battery energy systems and electric vehicles (EVs). It also discussed the negative effects of RE grid integration on inertia. Section 7 provides recommendations as well as future research needs or directions in the realm of the integration of renewable energy resources into smart grids. Finally, section 8 concludes the paper.

2. Overview of the smart grid

A smart grid is a system that controls, runs, and makes use of energy sources that are integrated into the smart grid through the use of smart communication technology and computerized procedures. This type of system is also known as a “smart grid.” Because of the excessive reliance on technology, the power supply has been forced to activate these technologies in all of their implications, which has resulted in an increase in the demand for asset management and a tripling of productivity. The cost of conventional energy sources is higher than that of smart grid technologies; as a result, the cost of energy has been decreasing over time along with the development of smart grid technologies [22]. The transformation of the conventional grid into the intelligent grid will open up employment opportunities for both skilled and unskilled workers, in addition to fostering innovative technological solutions and economic expansion [23]. The authors of [24] claim that a smart grid lessens the number of power outages that occur while simultaneously boosting overall efficiency and giving customers a greater degree of say over the distribution and usage of energy. Customers have a higher level of satisfaction as a direct result of the decreased dependence on traditional grids as well as the associated savings [25]. The integrated use of renewable energy sources has a number of beneficial effects, not only on the economy but also on the health of individuals. In a nutshell, the significance of incorporating renewable energy sources into the smart grid may be summed up as follows: it makes a positive contribution to society and the economy, and it also helps the environment [26].

2.1. Smart grid-related difficulties

The safety, dependability, and effectiveness of the electrical system have all been significantly bolstered as a result of recent upgrades to the distribution and transmission grids. This enhancement is accomplished with the use of a smart grid, which integrates intelligent metering, control techniques, and communication technologies into its operations. The implementation of smart metering technology has resulted in significant enhancements to the functioning of the grid, including enhancements to the means of fault detection and the application of grid automation to facilitate the transition from the conventional grid to the SG. Due to the fact that SG is still in its infancy, there are no universal standards that define its safety limits or thresholds. According to the authors of [27], SG does not rely as heavily on humans as it does on smart devices. Because of this, it is more likely that hackers will be able to gain access to a significant number of smart meters and modify the data they collect. In addition, because the entire system is automated, concerns over data collection, personal privacy, and the proper use of smart meters may arise. The current level of infrastructure for power grids is not sufficient enough to support the development of SG technologies [28]. The installation of SG equipment is made more expensive due to the requirement that smart meters and sensors be purchased for the purpose of data collecting and delivery. In Ref. [29], the significant difficulties that SG technologies face in the realms of information and communication are analyzed and highlighted. The authors provide a comprehensive evaluation of the existing research on smart grids as well as the research challenges related with the field. In a similar manner, the authors of [30] made an effort to explore the function of smart grid in renewable energy. Specifically, they analyzed the network by incorporating the flexibility idea of renewable energies and SG. In addition [31], discusses the architecture of smart grids, as well as secure communication protocols and security standards. During the course of their investigation, they focused on three significant facets: management systems, intelligent infrastructure systems, and SG protection systems. Gungor et al. [32] have made efforts to comprehensively assess the full set of difficulties associated with smart grids, including their size and the nature of their architecture. Evaluation is done on the prospective potential use of SG to enforce appropriate communication, good performance, reliability, and economics. A comprehensive overview of the meaning of smart grid, communication methods, and the system component architectures in power systems has also been examined by certain writers. This was done in the context of the power systems. This provides a condensed overview of the present state of the art in regards to the SG communication concepts [[33], [34], [35]]. After conducting an extensive literature review on a variety of topics pertaining to the smart grid, the characteristics, uses, and advantages of the smart grid are discussed as illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

The Characteristics and applications of Smart Grid.

The excessive reliance on smart grid technology causes an increase in the amount of power supply, which in turn permits the functioning of the increasing demand for asset management and boosts productivity. Many different approaches to overcoming the problems and difficulties presented by the incorporation of RES into the grid system have been devised by a number of different researchers. The purpose of this work is to accomplish improvements in system reliability and performance smart grids with the introduction of RERs. There is a requirement to have energy storage facilities that are readily available during peak conditions in order to satisfy the load demand of consumers. The topic of good energy storage facilities is covered in Ref. [36]. In the meanwhile, connecting a number of disparate resources to the command and control network is beneficial. Because even if one of the power plants where the electricity is generated stops working, there will not be a complete blackout of the power supply. Additionally, the consequences brought on by the inherently unstable nature of renewable energy sources would be mitigated. Additionally, the capacity of a certain grid needs to be readily known before one can make plans to supply electricity to a new district while the facilities of the grid are barely enough to support the needs of one district alone.

Finally, the solutions that have been provided play an important part in the integration of renewable energy, which in turn has a significant impact on load shifting and demand side management (DSM). Through a process known as load sheading, certain portions of the load are shifted at times of high demand in order to absorb the surplus of renewable energy generation. During off-peak hours, DSM contributes to the operation of smart grids by helping to establish a balance between the amount of energy generated and the amount of load.

3. Smart grid energy sources

The smart grid makes use of renewable energy sources, also known as green energy, which derive from natural sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, nuclear, or bio energy [37]. Green energy is also sometimes referred to as eco-friendly energy. Nuclear energy can be obtained through nuclear fusion, which is the process of separate atoms of chemical compounds fusing together, nuclear fission, which is the process of individual atoms of compounds splitting apart, or nuclear decay, which is the process of highly reactive compounds breaking down. The concept of bioenergy was initially conceived as a direct alternative to carbon-based fossil fuels. Both require the consumption of some kind of fuel. Burning bioenergy, on the other hand, does not result in the emission of greenhouse gases like the burning of carbon-based fossil fuels does. It is widely considered to be one of the most effective sources of power for motor vehicles, aircraft, and ships [38]. One of the most effective ways to harness renewable energy is through the usage of hydropower. It is put to use in a variety of countries in order to generate renewable energy, and it is of some assistance to those nations because it is responsible for a sizeable amount of the clean energy that is produced.

Solar and wind energy were the primary foci of this section because of the critical role they play in the operation of smart grids. Solar energy can be broken down into two categories: solar energy generation, and solar energy grid connected norms and standards, which are only applicable in a select few countries.

3.1. Solar energy generation

Concentrated solar power (CSP) is a type of solar thermal energy that is utilized in transferring electricity by energy concentration through the sun in a single focus point [39]. This conversion of sunlight energy into electrical energy can be done directly through the use of solar photovoltaic panels (PV) or through the use of CSP, which is a type of solar thermal energy. This method is often recognized as the most modern, reliable, and user-friendly alternative for the production of heat and electricity [40]. According to one of the numerous studies that have been done, Egypt is one of the countries that receives a significant amount of solar radiation. This was discovered in a study on the generation of solar energy. It was determined that the sun's direct radiation, on average, in per day was recorded in numerous different sites [41,42]. Solar power plants have applications in the solar chimney and the concentrated solar plant, as was explained in the section that came before this one.

3.1.1. The Solar Chimney System

The energy for the solar chimney (SC) system originates from the conversion of the energy from the sun into the energy of heat, which is then turned back into the energy of motion to rotate the turbine and produce electricity. The solar chimney power plant (SCPP) is a type of power plant that is responsible for carrying out this process. It is composed of a roof collector that covers the incoming air that is heated by sunlight radiation and an updraft chimney that is positioned in the center of the collector. This updraft chimney allows air at a high temperature to travel through the chimney and the collection's lower glass cover [43]. It should come as no surprise that SC systems have a number of benefits, including low operational and maintenance costs, a long lifespan, and straightforward management.

Several researchers [[44], [45], [46], [47]] have conducted studies in a variety of nations and geographic places on traditional SC and analyzed the utility and operating performance of SCPP utilizing a number of different methodologies. Table 2 offers an overview of the experimental and feasibility investigations carried out by these researchers at various SCPPs locations across the country. In a similar vein, a great number of researchers investigated SCs because of the possible economic impact they could have, the amount of energy they would consume, and the environmental benefits they would provide. The authors of [[48], [49], [50]] used passive cooling to give indoor heat comfort in arid and hot climates by imitating the consumption of energy in a residential setting. Recent research [[51], [52], [53], [54]] looked at the viability of using solar concentrators (SC) in conjunction with solar cells to generate additional power in residential buildings. At the Faculty of Energy Engineering in Aswan, Egypt, a pilot SCPP project on a smaller scale was just completed. This system includes a wind turbine (WT), a tall tower, and an air collector, as can be shown in Fig. 3 [54,55]. These are the four primary components of this system. The collector can be hung anywhere from two to 20 m above ground level, according on your preference. In contrast to photovoltaic (PV) systems, solar collectors (SC) are able to generate electricity continuously, even after the sun has set. This presents a significant competitive advantage.

Table 2.

The Empirical and Feasibility study of SCPP based on Countries.

S/No	Countries	Authors	Type of Study Conducted
1.	Egypt	Fathy et al. [56]	Empirical study
2.	USA	Raney et al. [57]	Empirical study
3.	Syria	Kalash et al. [58]	Empirical study
4.	Iran	Ghalam et al. [59,60]	Empirical study
5.	India	Ghalamchi et al. [61]	Empirical study
6.	China	Guo et al. [62]	Empirical study
7.	Japan	Okada et al. [63]	Empirical study
8.	Iraq	Amori et al. [64]	Empirical study
9.	Algeria	Azizia et al. [65]	Empirical study
10.	Jordan	Al-Dabbas [66]	Empirical study
11.	Austria	Akbarzade et al. [67]	Empirical study
12.	China	Zhou et al. [68]	Empirical study
13.	USA	Pasumarthi et al. [69]	Empirical study
14.	China	Cao et al. [70]	Feasibility study
15.	Spain	Cuce et al. [71]	Feasibility study
16.	Nepal	Baral, S [72].	Feasibility study
17.	India	Akhtar and Rao [73].	Feasibility study
18.	Saudi Arabia	Mostafa et al. [74]	Feasibility study
19.	Nigeria	Okoye et al. [75]	Feasibility study
20.	Lebanon	Bayeh et al. [76]	Feasibility study
21.	Northern Cyprus	Okoye et al. [77]	Feasibility study
22.	Iran	Sangi [78]	Feasibility study
23.	Libya	Abuashe et al. [79]	Feasibility study
24.	Cairo, Egypt	El-Haroun et al. [80]	Feasiblity study
25.	Tunisia	Bouabidi et al. [81]	Feasibility Study

Fig. 3.

Components of a solar chimney system.

3.1.2. Concentrated solar power plant

Mirrors are used in the functioning of a Concentrated Solar Plant (CSP) to reflect sunlight and concentrate it at a single point on a receiver. After the sunlight is concentrated, the receiver is triggered, and a high-temperature fluid is transmitted. When the liquid is pumped through the rotating turbine, it results in the production of electrical power. In the year 2011, a CSP station was constructed in the Kuraymat region of Egypt. Because it takes advantage of both the benefits of solar energy and the combined cycle, this technique is referred to as solar combined cycle (SCC) technology [[81], [82], [83], [84]]. The primary components and relevant statistics for a power plant with a producing capacity of 140 MW are presented in Table 3. This capacity is comprised of a gas-fired combined cycle with 120 MW of generating capacity and two solar PV systems with 20 MW each.

Table 3.

The main parts and data for the solar power plant.

Parameters	Value
Total Solar Area	130800 $m^2$
No. of collectors	160
Number of Loops	40 per collector
Number of modules	12 per collector
Design of Irradiation	700 W/ $m^2$
Maximum Solar Power Output	61 MW
Nominal Capacity	20 MW
Solar Resources	2154
Receiver Inlet Temperature	293 $°C$
Receiver Outlet Temperature	393 $°C$

To summarize, solar power can only generate electricity when the sun is shining, and the infrastructure required to harness its potential takes a significant amount of land. These problems have not been solved, most notably in the process of selecting materials for use in solar technology. By making it possible to make the best use of renewable energy resources (RES) and electric vehicles (EVs), solar energy that is powered by the sun has been successful in lowering the amount of greenhouse gas emissions.

4. Applications of the smart grid in private homes

Several residences and buildings can be made more technologically advanced by utilizing the smart grid. This has recently come to more widespread attention and has secured the efficient running of the solutions available on the smart energy market. Recent years have seen a rise in the prevalence of smart home technology, which can be attributed to recent advancements in energy management activities on smart grid [85]. In a variety of written works, the benefits of having a smart home or building are broken down into several categories. According to the authors of “[86],” one of the benefits of having a smart home is increased personal thermal comfort, as well as safety, reduced energy expenditures, and increased flexibility. Several studies on the uses of smart grid technology on homes and buildings have been carried out, and the findings of these studies have led researchers to the conclusion that the key characteristics exhibited by smart home technology are dependent on the communication channel and data type that is utilized. The smart grid is a network that connects various pieces of technical hardware and software to energy management systems (EMS) as well as energy users. The EMS is responsible for monitoring the present state and initiating corrective action based on the identified important criteria [87]. These qualities include: a communications network that is swift and reliable, control methods to govern the information of each sensor-based device, and data acquired through smart sensors. The publications that have been published in journals that are evaluated by peers and focus on smart grid applications, smart homes and buildings, technological advancements, and case studies are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4.

A summary of peer-reviewed journal publications published in the last ten (10) years on smart grid applications, smart homes/buildings, technology, and case studies.

Authors	Year	Article Focus	Reviewed Content
G. Hoseini et al. [88]	2013	The authors' goal is to investigate smart home theory case models in order to learn more about the significance and features of these models. Within the scope of this study, various technologies for smart homes that make use of renewable energy sources have been presented.	It was decided to look into the following cases: •The smart home awareness design and introduced at the Institute of Technology in Georgia, USA •A smart Laboratory in Iowa state university.
S. Al-Sumaiti et al. [89]	2014	The management system, the definitions of linked terminologies, the applications, and the advantages are the primary foci of attention with regard to smart home energy. These technologies have been connected in a variety of smart houses, and discussion has taken place over their applicability.	•Research concepts for energy management systems •Optimum utilization of energy storage systems •Automation, communication, and control.
Wilson et al. [90]	2015	The research was conducted by analyzing the utilization of smart homes and buildings, as well as evaluating some previous studies that have been subjected to peer review. In this study, various different types of power supplies for intelligent homes and buildings are discussed in detail.	•Consumers' ideas about what smart homes are like in terms of their functions, instruments, and other social-technical requirements. •The significance of having a smart house. •The challenges involved in creating a “smart home"
Zhou et al. [91]	2016	This article explores the advanced smart home energy management systems (SHEMS) infrastructures and household appliances currently available on the market. The structural architecture of SHEMS as well as its functional components were analyzed in this study. In this article, the SHEMS were implemented in the smart grid, and a discussion was had on the value of these systems in comparison to other sources.	•A comprehensive explanation of SHEMS •An investigation into the organizational structure of SHEMS
Abubakar et al. [92]	2017	In the publication, a review was given of previous work done on the application of various techniques for the monitoring of load on energy systems. In this research, load management with renewable energy sources (RES) and its applications to electric vehicles (EVs) were examined.	•A look was taken at a few different load monitoring concepts. •An analysis of energy monitoring devices was performed. •Techniques for cutting down on the expense of one's energy consumption. •Unfilled areas of research that will be necessary for future investigations.
G-Hanssen and Darby [93]	2018	The primary objective of the research project on intelligent home technology was to investigate the relationship between intelligent houses and building energy management technologies. There was discussion regarding the integration of RERs on smart grid in regards to both smart homes and buildings. Additionally, their applications were looked into.	•An introduction to intelligent buildings and households. •The application software •The technologies for the “smart home"
Sovacool et al. [94]	2019	This research offers an in-depth examination and discussion of the benefits and cons associated with the use of smart home technologies. Consumers of energy can benefit from the utilization of multiple sources of energy that are detailed in this article thanks to the adoption of smart homes.	•The presentation of different research designs. •An explanation of how intelligent homes function. •Characteristics
F. D. Rio et al. [95]	2020	The purpose of this article was to investigate recent developments in the field of smart home technology by analyzing data gathered through interviews with industry experts. This article performed an analysis of the research and offered a number of suggestions on the application of EVs to the coordination of VPPs.	•Advanced energy management and sustainability, enterprises, and ramifications as they pertain to smart houses. •A business model for the operation of smart homes in their functional capacities.
F. D. Rio et al. [96]	2021	The study presents a comprehensive analysis of the political, social, and economic factors that are associated with smart houses. The establishment of virtual power plants included discussion of the political and social considerations involved. This article looks at the effects that political and social issues have on the viability of voluntary participation programs (VPPs).	•The conceptualization of smart homes •The inherent sustainability of the environment •Cultural applications and uses:
Kim et al. [97]	2021	A quantitative review of smart homes and cities for the purpose of sustainable energy delivery is presented and discussed in this paper. This work contributed to the existing body of research by presenting the idea of smart grid coordination of vehicle powertrain propulsion systems (VPPs) and electric vehicle energy transportation.	•The various technical aspects and difficulties associated with smart houses. •Functional underpinnings and stumbling blocks •Ground breaking products and services for intelligent cities.
Ugwu et al. [9]	2022	This study provides a thorough, comprehensive, and current analysis of smart systems communication to identify future directions and obstacles for further study. In order to identify prospective research issues, future research paths, or research gaps in the field of smart systems communication, this review will serve as a guide for other researchers. There is no discussion on inertia control for grid connected RESs.	•Smart grid communication •Virtual power plants
Hossain et al. [98]	2023	This study focuses on the potential for bringing about improvements in EV technology, efficient grid and EV interactions, quick bidirectional charging and discharging capabilities, control of grid and EV structures, issues, advantages, pitfalls, challenges, and recommendations. This work did not emphasize on the need for inertia scarcity during RESs integration on smart grid.	•The applications of Electric vehicles •Grid control for RESs integration

4.1. A community microgrid, the participation of some prosumers, and the sharing of energy

The foundation for energy sharing in a community might be something like a community microgrid, a few prosumers, and consumers, all of whom have access to backup power from a utility. The energy management system installed in the user's home would monitor the amount of demand in the neighborhood as well as the supply that was currently available. The term “prosumer” is used to describe “an energy user who generates renewable energy in his or her domestic environment and either stores the surplus energy for future use or trades to interested energy customers.” Prosumers would be able to determine how much unused energy they had accessible during the day at various points in time [99]. The energy that is produced by the prosumers would not be distributed by the utility company, but rather via a decentralized network that makes it possible for energy to be provided directly to a consumer. Prosumer Communities are a type of prosumer that engages in peer-to-peer trading connections, benefits from asset purchases and financing at scale, participates in collective energy efficiency initiatives, and expands their market reach, typically through the formation of a local energy market. Prosumer Communities also participate in collective energy efficiency projects. Local Energy Markets are communities of prosumers that work together to promote peer-to-peer trading and diminish power trading with external entities. This gives members of the community the ability to control to whom they sell and from whom they acquire energy.

Zafar et al. stated that the goal of these prosumers is to both create and consume energy, as well as to share and redistribute excess energy to other users on the grid [100]. There are also several definitions of prosumers that can be found in the literature on prosumers [101]. In general, all of these definitions of prosumers refer to energy users who produce energy that is used within the grid. In other words, prosumers are energy consumers who also produce energy. The second concept that is connected to this one is that of a group of prosumers who participate in the provisioning of energy. “Prosumer Cooperative Group” (PCG) is an acronym that stands for “a network of prosumers having relatively similar energy sharing behaviors, who endeavor to pursue a mutual goal and jointly compete in the energy market [102]." Electricity Prosumer Communities (EPCs), which are defined as “groups of people producing, sharing, and consuming electricity locally [103]," are another idea that is very closely connected to this one. Other authors have referred to the same idea by different names, such as Integrated Community Energy Systems (ICESs) [[104], [105], [106], [107]] and Clean Energy Communities (CECs) [108]. PCGs are distinguished from other types of prosumer communities primarily by the fact that the development of groups or coalitions in PCGs is predicated on the presence of shared objectives. In the part devoted to the Prosumer Community, we go over further information on PCG.

Energy consumers in the classic sense are not to be confused with prosumers. Prosumers are consumers that generate their own energy, consume it themselves, and then either actively transfer or store any excess energy [109]. Traditional customers get their energy from the grid. Prosumers also have the ability to store any excess energy they produce using an Energy Storage System for later consumption. Alternatively, they can sell the surplus energy to the grid or to customers in the surrounding area [110]. Prosumers have been shown to improve the efficiency of the energy system in a variety of ways, as seen by comparisons made between conventional grids and smart grids that are based on prosumers. These include the improvement of the functionality of household appliances through the use of intelligent devices and communication technologies, the provision of storage capacity to assist in the management of power fluctuations, and the maintenance of the equilibrium between local demand and supply [111].

5. Virtual power plants as an efficient media for integrating renewable energy resources on smart grids

Components of the power system need to be grouped together into subsystems according to their geographical locations, the technological requirements of those places, and the commercial characteristics of those subsystems in order to effectively address the challenges posed by the new energy market and supply. A collection of distributed energy resources, such as renewable energy, energy storage, controllable loads, networking, prosumers, and consumers, is known as a virtual power plant (VPP). Users are promised that their energy issues will be resolved after the resources are contributed to the power system in the form of a component [112,113]. The formation of such clusters results in a smart grid network that is self-sufficient and enhances the trading of energy. The objective of the VPP is to furnish the grid with the proper environment as well as auxiliary services. This will make it possible for the grid to sell power to energy customers, improve the economics and reliability of the system, and encourage the effective optimization of resources.

The idea of VPP makes it necessary to take a holistic approach because it brings to light the problems that are experienced by the conventional grid. These problems have been solved thanks to the development of VPP, which has also contributed to the enhancement of the intelligence of the power system. In this section, we will create the functional requirements for the VPP in order to minimize the limits that are posed by the energy market, as well as their impacts on allowing the use of information and communication technology (ICT), as well as future requirements. Numerous authors brought attention to the many obstacles that prevent the complete implementation of VPP, and they separated the capabilities of VPP into two distinct categories: the technical virtual power plant (TVPP), and the commercial virtual power plant (CVPP). The TVPP ensures that the power system continues to work in a safe manner by taking into consideration any physical restrictions, potential services, and VPP functions. On the other hand, the CVPP considers distributed energy resources (DERs) to be a commercial commodity in terms of optimizing, supplying, utilizing, and pricing energy for the open electricity market [114]. Distributed intelligence, which monitors and regulates all clustered energy elements as well as grid integration, is required for VPP operations, as the authors of [115] explain. Fig. 4 is a depiction of the general control architecture of the VPP. Using a data concentrator system, information such as that collected from smart meters and weather stations is transmitted to intelligent agents located on the secondary side of distribution. As shown in Fig. 4, the VPP is responsible for activity coordination and acts as a conduit for the transfer of energy from the internal grid to the external grid. It contributes to the concept in analyzing, contrasting, and classifying the various blockchain consensus algorithms that are relevant to the DER transactions. In addition to this, research is being done on the application mode of the VPP smart contract and the inter Blockchain solution [116].

Fig. 4.

The generic control architecture of a VPP.

5.1. Virtual power plants applications

Recent studies predict that the global market for VPP would expand at a quick rate between 2016 and 2023, rising from $191.5 million to $1.1875 billion, mostly as a result of the considerable interest shown by prosumers. This has gradually become an indispensable resource for important participants in the energy market, and it is probable that this trend will continue [117]. A large number of researchers have compiled a list of the most important aspects of VPP, which have been summed up and arranged in accordance with how they are utilized and how they apply to smart grid. VPP may coordinate energy resources in order to establish the best demand-supply balance. This will alleviate some of the problems raised during smart grid energy exchange [118]. It does so in order to deliver appropriate services on a variety of energy markets, particularly to stakeholders who are interested in the matter, and it does so by coordinating the various energy resources. VPP guarantees the most effective distribution of DERs in communities and local markets by centering its attention on economic and social aspects [119].

In conclusion, the Virtual Power Plant (VPP) offers considerable benefits for the integration of RES into the grid and ensures the remote control of a large number of grid elements that cope with the issues of providing energy services. In spite of this, a different strategy for the supply of energy services that makes use of VPP has not been adequately examined in order to cut down on energy costs. Combinations of virtual power plants (VPP) are decentralized energy sources that are used to create and deliver electricity to customers. One of the most important elements of virtual power plants (VPPs) is the electric vehicle (EV), which makes use of EV batteries to compensate for the unpredictability of decentralized renewable energy sources like wind, solar, hydro, and so on.

6. Electric vehicle integration on smart grid

Incorporating electric vehicles (EV) into smart grids not only lessens the reliance that the transportation sector has on fossil fuels, but it also brings about a reduction in the amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) that are released [120]. Electric vehicle mobility creates challenges for smart grids, including those related to power quality, long-term regulation, and reliability. In order to enable RERs-based generation and integration into smart grid, the battery storage system for electric cars (EVs) is now under development. They come equipped with a sufficient number of transportation features for the process of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) energy transfer. With the help of this function, extra energy can be stored and then fed back into the main grid during times of high demand for power. Electric vehicles help to maintain a stable level of intermittent renewable energy resources at the level of the transmission system. This is because electric vehicles are able to both absorb energy during times of high integration of RERs and transmit power back to the grid during times of high demand for energy [121]. Electric vehicles also provide auxiliary services to distribution system operators (DSOs), and their performance has been categorized into three different categories: uncoordinated charging, smart charging, and smart charging and discharging (also known as Two-Way V2G) [122,123].

Uncoordinated Charging happens when an EVS is connected directly to the distribution network and continues charging the battery until it reaches its full capacity. Coordination between the EVS and the distribution network is not required for this type of charging. Since the early 1980s, a significant number of research have been carried out on the topic of EV charging rate regulation and its implications on the DSO. According to Heydt [124], emphasis should be placed on load management in order to lower peak DSO loading, which will lead to an evaluation of an improvement in load factor. In addition, Rahman and Shrestha [125] shown in 1993 that low EV penetration levels might generate peak loads that are higher than the natural peak if the charging load distribution during off-peak periods is ignored. This was shown to be the case when comparing natural peak to the peak generated by low EV penetration levels. It should come as no surprise that the maximum limit that can be easily managed while charging load distribution is a penetration level of twenty percent.

On the other hand, Sortomme et al. [126] propose optimal charging algorithms to minimize the effects of EVs on the distribution network in order to reduce power loss and improve load factor. In a similar vein, Morias et al. [127] developed a multiobjective optimization technique as a means of analyzing the impact that EVs have on power consumption. This method takes into account the cost of scheduling and load levelling as the primary objective function of the proposed algorithm [128]. looked into the possibility of adjusting the phase angle of the current flowing via EV chargers in an acceptable manner so as to compensate for the reactive power that was absorbed from the network. In a similar vein [129], discusses the impact that charging electric vehicles has on the reactive support provided by low voltage (LV) distribution networks. Because of the problem of low reactive power support, a methodology has been developed to deal with the issues of active and reactive power support on distribution networks that use EVS. The goal of this approach is to enhance the voltage profile and decrease the amount of power that is lost [130]. The authors of [131] investigate the potential for distributed generation to be utilized in the provision of auxiliary services like frequency regulation. The authors of [98] have placed emphasis on the potential for EV technology breakthroughs. They talked about quick bidirectional charging, discharge controls, and smooth grid and EV operations. A study on EV control tactics, structures, problems, difficulties, and recommendations is also available. However, Mohammad et al. focused on the uses of the smart grid in communication networks and distributed generating systems for electric vehicles. This work addressed various limitations and difficulties for EV enhancement using RESs and made recommendations for academics and researchers on how to overcome the problems [132].

Recent research has demonstrated that frequency management has a major impact on the DSO in the following ways: a) to reduce peak load and power losses; and b) to regulate voltage. Both of these effects can be attributed to frequency management. In conclusion, the most recent research has shown that there is a substantial gap in the ancillary services given by electric vehicles (EVs) in the grid. Filling this gap should be a priority in order to ensure the efficient operation of smart grids.

6.1. Benefits of Electric vehicles (EVs) penetration on smart grid

Electric vehicles that participate in the V2G protocol can function as energy storage units on the smart grid since power can be transferred between the vehicle and the grid while the vehicle is in motion. Because of this, it is necessary to have an efficient information exchange, including statistical data, technical data, and the state of charge in the battery [133]. The integration of electric vehicles, which have a power flow in both directions, helps with the control of the combination of RER and SG [134,135]. In the event that there is an increase in power generation by RES, the smart grid will redistribute electricity to the EV while it is operating in steady-state mode. This method makes it possible for EVs to act as storage units, which contributes to a reduction in the impacts of intermittency that are generated by RERs. In addition, electric vehicles have a beneficial effect on the economy as a result of technological developments in battery storage. The electric vehicles are evaluated using battery storage technology, which has led to an increase in the effectiveness of electric motors. Additionally, the installation of smart charging infrastructure for electric vehicles (EVs) boosts the economics of the distribution network by preventing the waste of a sizeable quantity of energy inside the smart grid [136]. The widespread use of electric vehicles in Singapore has contributed to a reduction in both the consumption of fossil fuels and the amount of CO2 emissions. The overcharging of electric vehicles and the consequences they have on the economic status of Singapore both have a comparable influence on the managed charging approach, as is shown in Refs. [137,138].

In this section, the focus is on lowering SG transmission losses and resolving issues encountered during the integration of RERs onto smart grids [139,140]. It is impossible to overestimate the significance of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) batteries to the efficient operation of battery charging. In the smart grid and V2G paradigms, the operation of the charging infrastructure for electric vehicles is depicted in Fig. 5 as being both intelligent and optimum. Mutual authentication and the privacy preservation of electric vehicle (EV) information such as identity, battery status, location, and charging/discharging selection and time duration are provided by a scheme that is based on the bilinear pairing technique with an accumulator [141]. This scheme defends against multiple security attacks such as the man-in-the-middle attack, replay attack, impersonation attack, redirection attack, and repudiation attack while generating lower communication and computation overhead than existing schemes.

Fig. 5.

The smart and optimum charging operation of EVs under SG and V2G.

The introduction of RERs into the grid results in voltage oscillations and power losses; however, these effects can be minimized by the charging of batteries via V2G. As a consequence of this, the utilization of an intelligent energy management system is required in order to lengthen the life of the V2G battery [142]. The technique of EV charging scheduling is offered for the purpose of ensuring the seamless flow of energy from vehicle to grid and vehicle to vehicle. Consumer satisfaction, energy utilization, and the availability of power on SG will all improve as a result of these scheduling strategies [143].

6.2. Inverter-based generator inertia reduction in renewable energy integrated grid

It is now impossible to overstate how much more renewable energy sources (RESs) like wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal are being used to provide electricity. Through inverters and converters, RESs supply power to microgrid. When compared to conventional/traditional synchronous generators, these power electronic RESs devices will reduce the overall inertia of the power system that results in frequency reduction or voltage instability to the smart grid [144]. Both the development of these inverter-based generators and the intermittent nature of the majority of RESs have downsides. This could cause concerns including extreme power generation fluctuations brought on by high RESs' variable nature, voltage rise problems brought on by high RESs' reverse power flow, and an excessive supply of electricity in the power grid caused by high RESs' full generation. These problems make it harder to stabilise system frequency and voltage, which reduces the resilience of the microgrid. One of the latest solutions to the problem caused by inverter-based generators in smart grid is to incorporate synchronous generator into the smart grid, increasing system stability and resilience [145]. The virtual synchronous generator (VSG) concept, a modern solution to this issue, has been put out in Refs. [146,147]. This generator gives systems the essential services they require while imitating synchronous machines' crucial behaviour. The prime mover is used in the VSG implementation to allow frequency control through a virtual inertia control. This method increases the active power at the target spot by measuring the frequency deviation and basing its strategy on the rate of change in frequency. Additionally, it improves the smart grid total inertia and transient frequency stability. In order to increase the system's virtual inertia for frequency stability and the stability of power systems for RESs integration, a unique predictive control measure is therefore required.

7. Recommendations and future work

Future power grids will be able to accommodate the integration of massive renewable energy resources as the world moves away from its reliance on energy derived from fossil fuels and toward energy derived from renewable sources. There is a huge knowledge gap regarding advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), as well as a lack of strategic vision for the implementation of AMI and the management of data from smart meters. There is an immediate need for standardized communication, distribution control, improved energy transmission, and real-time information, all of which would benefit energy customers as well as utilities. Research on future energy management systems ought to center on the introduction of electric vehicles and the readiness of the system's integration with smart grids. The following features of EMS integration with EVs have not yet been fully investigated: a) Integration of battery system technology planning and control measures; and b) Impacts of battery energy storage integration on the grid in terms of voltage fluctuations and harmonics. Both of these areas of EMS integration have yet to be fully investigated. a) Integration of battery system technology planning and control measures. When it is fully developed, an optimal EMS will increase the energy transportation sustainability on smart grid, which will make it possible for current vehicle operations.

In addition, further research needs to be done to determine how renewable energy sources can be utilized most effectively to produce sufficient and sustainable energy in the most efficient manner possible. It is recommended that research be conducted into the uncertainties that influence the aggregation of various RES into the construction of VPP, in particular with regard to the areas of economic electricity dispatch. Because of the necessity of an efficient communication and management model for the effective functioning of VPPs and EVs, additional research into the ways in which communication discontinuity influences integration into grid networks ought to be carried out.

In conclusion, in order to satisfy the need for energy, researchers should concentrate their efforts on developing technology for energy harvesting, storage, and management. In the pursuit of a dependable and environmentally friendly energy source, a significant amount of focus needs to be placed on the manner in which cutting-edge technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), are utilized in smart homes and buildings to gather helpful information and signal sensations.

8. Conclusion

The purpose of this study is to present an in-depth review of recent developments in smart grid made possible by renewable energy resources. Integration has been thoroughly evaluated, and a comprehensive review of the current state of the art on the penetration of renewable energy resources, integration methods, solutions, and advantages has been carried out in order to identify areas that need to be improved in order to establish a future smart grid that is resilient, clean, and intelligent. The outcomes of the study indicate that many of the authors focused their attention on the most recent information available on renewable energy sources. During the comprehensive analysis and examination of the smart grid, it was discovered that there were problems with the integration of RERs and solar energy sources. It is common knowledge that solar power can only create electricity when the sun is shining, and that it requires a significant amount of space on which to grow. These difficulties, most notably in the process of selecting materials for use in solar technology, have not been solved as of yet. Solar power has been very effective in lowering greenhouse gas emissions because it enables a more efficient use of renewable energy resources (RES) and electric vehicles (EVs). As a consequence of this, strategies for boosting the amount of energy that can be supplied by EVs to the smart grid need to be devised.

Despite the fact that earlier work has been done in this area, the primary focus of this article is on the effect that these RERs have on the optimal performance of the smart grid in terms of future energy consumption. Smart grids have transformed the smart energy business as well as energy management services, and they have a wide range of applications in residential settings. Because of this, there has been a rise in interest in intelligent home systems. The clustering of various power system components according to the technological requirements, commercial features, and geographical locations of those components gave rise to the concept of virtual power plants. VPPs have showed a stronger ability to minimize these challenges as a result of RERs integration on smart grid by aggregating scattered energy resources such as renewable energy sources, energy storage, controlled loads, communications, prosumers, and consumers. This ability has been demonstrated through a series of studies.

As was said earlier, a significant amount of effort has been put into the development of enhanced energy storage technologies. These technologies are intended to guarantee the smooth operation of the smart grid as well as an adequate supply of energy to end users. Nevertheless, a future smart grid will require a reliable communication system that is capable of improving the smart grid's long-term viability and security while also catering to the most fundamental requirements of energy consumers. These requirements include an enhanced voltage profile, decreased power losses, low harmonic distortion, dependability, and increased energy efficiency.

Additional information

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Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.