FIGURE 4.

The intricate connection between gut microbiota and the treatment of epilepsy. Various approaches, including KD, FMT, probiotics, antibiotics, and ASMs, can affect the composition and function of gut microbiota. This, in turn, triggers a cascade of effects leading to alterations in inflammation response, peripheral and central metabolites (such as short-chain fatty acids, 5-HT, and GABA, among others), as well as the activity of the ENS, ultimately modulating brain function and effectively controlling seizures. Abbreviations: KD, ketogenic diet; FMT, fecal microbiota transplantation; ASMs, anti-seizure medications; ENS, enteric nervous system; SCFAs, short-chain fatty acids.