Table 4.

Dietary sources and bioavailability of micronutrients.

Micronutrient	Dietary Sources	Bioavailability Enhancement	Bioavailability Impairment	Best Bioavailable Forms
Vit. D [60,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,92]	fat-rich fish (salmon, herring, mackerel), eggs, milk, dairy products and cheese	fat-rich meals, vitamin E	polyunsaturated fatty acids, phytosterols, long-chain fatty acids	“exposure to sunlight”, cholecalciferol
Ca [60,83,97,98,99,100,101,102]	milk, milk-based foods, kale, parsley leaves, spinach, bean seeds	lactose, vitamin D, phosphopeptides	oxalic acid (spinach, rhubarb, beans), phytic acid (seeds, nuts, grains, certain raw beans and soy isolates), insoluble fibre fractions, high phosphorus content	calcium carbonate, gluconate
P [83,107,108,109,110,111]	rennet cheese, buckwheat groats, fish, offal, meat, wholegrain bread, legumes, eggs	phosphorus from animal products, activation of phytases in plant products (sprouting process, soaking legumes, using sourdough to bake bread)	calcium, vitamin D deficiency	organic phosphate esters, ionised inorganic forms
Mg [60,68,83,114,115,116,117,118]	cereals, legumes, nuts, cocoa, dark chocolate, rennet cheese, potatoes, bananas, drinking water	fermentation of soluble fibre fractions, acidic pH, vitamin B6- pyridoxine	phytic acid, phosphates, calcium	magnesium carbonate, citrate, aspartate, hydroaspartate, lactate
Zn [60,99,121,123,124,125,126]	meat, liver, rennet cheese, dark bread, buckwheat groats, eggs	citric acid, animal protein	phytic acid, oxalic acid, insoluble fibre fractions, alcohol, iron, cadmium	zinc gluconate, citrate, picolinate
Fe [60,68,128,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141]	meat, liver, kidney, parsley, legumes, eggs	ascorbic acid, lactic acid, fermented products	phytic acid, oxalic acid, insoluble fibre fractions, plant protein, polyphenols	haem iron, ferrous sulphate, gluconate, ferric citrate, sulphate