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. 2024 Feb 10;14:3433. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-53261-3

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Differential θ modulation before and after BCI control. Top and Center: Patient normalized θ power during sessions with performance above optimal threshold (solid line) and first-day sessions below optimal performance threshold (dashed line). The optimal threshold was determined using ROC analysis to estimate the performance cutoff for BCI sessions with the greatest likelihood of significant θ modulation during neurofeedback. Black dashed lines indicate the onset of the start cue and neurofeedback spans. Orange shading indicates p values at durations without standard error overlap. Light orange shows duration without overlap between traces (500 ms window, n = 60, p = 0.006). Dark orange indicates durations of statistically significant differences between time traces (500 ms window, n = 60, Wilcoxon rank sum test, p < 0.0005, Bonferroni Corrected). The line shows averaged power values across each within-subject average, with the shaded region showing average standard error. Bottom: Topography of the normalized θ power during baseline and peak normalized θ during neurofeedback before and after BCI control. Theta power increases are localized to frontal channels during high BCI performance.