Fig. 5.

The drug discovery and development process can be broadly classified into six stages, comprising early target identification, compound screening, hit-to-lead, lead optimization, preclinical studies, and clinical studies. To hasten drug development, in vitro tumor models, such as tumor spheroids, tumor organoids, and 3D bioprinter models, have been instrumental. Tumor organoids, being more complex in vitro models, enable researchers to study tumor behavior in a more physiologically relevant environment. This can be especially beneficial when accurate in vivo recapitulation is critical