Table 3. Factors affecting overall happiness using logistic regression analysis.
| Variables | Variable categories | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ORs1) (95% CI) | P-value | ORs1) (95% CI) | P-value | ORs1) (95% CI) | P-value | ||
| Gender | Men (Ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Women | 1.12 (0.96–1.30) | 0.157 | 1.16 (0.98–1.37) | 0.094 | 0.76 (0.63–0.92) | 0.004 | |
| Age groups (yrs) | 18–29 (Ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| 30–39 | 1.48 (1.11–1.98) | 0.008 | 1.48 (1.10–1.98) | 0.009 | 1.10 (0.81–1.50) | 0.543 | |
| 40–49 | 1.21 (0.90–1.62) | 0.199 | 1.21 (0.90–1.62) | 0.215 | 0.85 (0.62–1.16) | 0.308 | |
| 50–59 | 0.74 (0.54–1.00) | 0.050 | 0.76 (0.56–1.04) | 0.091 | 0.60 (0.43–0.84) | 0.003 | |
| 60–69 | 0.61 (0.43–0.86) | 0.004 | 0.64 (0.45–0.92) | 0.015 | 0.54 (0.37–0.79) | 0.001 | |
| ≥ 70 | 0.46 (0.28–0.75) | 0.002 | 0.50 (0.30–0.82) | 0.007 | 0.45 (0.27–0.75) | 0.002 | |
| Education attainments | Less than high school (Ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| High school graduates | 0.51 (0.35–0.76) | 0.001 | 0.50 (0.33–0.74) | 0.001 | 0.60 (0.40–0.91) | 0.016 | |
| More than college entrance | 0.43 (0.28–0.65) | < 0.001 | 0.43 (0.28–0.66) | < 0.001 | 0.57 (0.36–0.89) | 0.014 | |
| Weight status2) | Underweight | 0.55 (0.31–0.97) | 0.040 | 0.56 (0.32–0.99) | 0.046 | 0.63 (0.35–1.12) | 0.114 |
| Normal (Ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
| Overweight | 0.91 (0.77–1.08) | 0.280 | 0.88 (0.74–1.05) | 0.157 | 0.87 (0.73–1.05) | 0.139 | |
| Obese | 1.13 (0.91–1.41) | 0.259 | 1.05 (0.84–1.31) | 0.678 | 1.18 (0.93–1.49) | 0.175 | |
| Type of household | One-person households (Ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Households with couples | 1.32 (0.92–1.90) | 0.128 | 1.39 (0.96–2.00) | 0.080 | 1.44 (0.99–2.10) | 0.056 | |
| Households with 2 generations | 0.92 (0.64–1.33) | 0.666 | 0.97 (0.67–1.40) | 0.851 | 1.02 (0.70–1.50) | 0.900 | |
| Others | 1.05 (0.55–1.98) | 0.891 | 0.98 (0.51–1.86) | 0.946 | 1.36 (0.70–2.63) | 0.362 | |
| Monthly household income (KRW) | < 2 million (Ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| 2–3.5 million | 0.88 (0.56–1.38) | 0.585 | 0.88 (0.56–1.39) | 0.584 | 0.87 (0.54–1.38) | 0.548 | |
| 3.5–5 million | 1.13 (0.71–1.81) | 0.605 | 1.09 (0.68–1.75) | 0.721 | 0.97 (0.60–1.58) | 0.909 | |
| 5–7 million | 1.39 (0.87–2.24) | 0.169 | 1.35 (0.84–2.17) | 0.222 | 1.14 (0.69–1.86) | 0.614 | |
| ≥ 7 million | 2.39 (1.45–3.93) | 0.001 | 2.44 (1.47–4.04) | 0.001 | 2.26 (1.34–3.82) | 0.002 | |
| Subjective social class | Lowest (Ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Lower middle | 0.78 (0.57–1.08) | 0.130 | 0.79 (0.57–1.09) | 0.145 | 0.74 (0.53–1.03) | 0.071 | |
| Middle | 1.19 (0.89–1.58) | 0.232 | 1.24 (0.93–1.66) | 0.142 | 1.05 (0.78–1.42) | 0.753 | |
| Upper middle | 1.63 (1.21–2.20) | 0.001 | 1.60 (1.18–2.17) | 0.002 | 1.41 (1.03–1.93) | 0.033 | |
| Highest | 1.91 (1.43–2.56) | < 0.001 | 2.07 (1.53–2.79) | < 0.001 | 1.92 (1.41–2.61) | < 0.001 | |
| Food security status | Quantity and quality sufficient (Ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Quantity sufficient but not quality | 0.42 (0.32–0.55) | < 0.001 | 0.44 (0.33–0.57) | < 0.001 | 0.52 (0.39–0.69) | < 0.001 | |
| Quantity and quality insufficient | 0.97 (0.64–1.45) | 0.867 | 1.00 (0.66–1.50) | 0.982 | 1.49 (0.98–2.27) | 0.062 | |
| Subjective health status | Not good (Ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Moderate | 1.47 (0.50–4.32) | 0.487 | 1.52 (0.52–4.50) | 0.447 | 1.26 (0.42–3.78) | 0.677 | |
| Good | 9.50 (3.41–26.47) | < 0.001 | 10.19 (3.64–28.51) | < 0.001 | 6.70 (2.36–18.98) | < 0.001 | |
| Major food groups intake frequency3) | Whole grains | 0.88 (0.75–1.04) | 0.130 | 0.84 (0.71–1.00) | 0.048 | ||
| Protein foods group | 1.38 (1.08–1.76) | 0.010 | 1.51 (1.17–1.94) | 0.001 | |||
| Total vegetables | 0.94 (0.74–1.19) | 0.624 | 0.86 (0.67–1.10) | 0.226 | |||
| Vegetables, excluding kimchi and pickles | 1.19 (0.95–1.51) | 0.137 | 1.18 (0.93–1.50) | 0.183 | |||
| Fruit | 0.81 (0.65–1.01) | 0.058 | 0.71 (0.57–0.89) | 0.003 | |||
| Sugar-sweetened beverages | 0.76 (0.66–0.89) | < 0.001 | 0.81 (0.69–0.95) | 0.011 | |||
| Instant noodles | 0.61 (0.46–0.81) | 0.001 | 0.66 (0.49–0.89) | 0.006 | |||
| Fast food | 1.80 (1.15–2.80) | 0.010 | 1.55 (0.98–2.44) | 0.061 | |||
| Total FL | Q1 (Ref.) | 1.00 | |||||
| Q2 | 2.29 (1.81–2.91) | < 0.001 | |||||
| Q3 | 2.74 (2.15–3.49) | < 0.001 | |||||
| Q4 | 7.32 (5.69–9.42) | < 0.001 | |||||
| AIC | 4,584.50 | 4,553.50 | 4,280.60 | ||||
The outcome variable was the overall happiness in life, categorized into 2 groups: less than 8 points were not happy (0), and 8 points or more were happy (1).
OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; KRW, Korean Won; FL, food literacy; AIC: Akaike Information Criterion.
1)ORs were obtained by logistic regression.
2)Weight status was categorized based on the body mass index (kg/m2): underweight < 18.5, normal 18.5–22.9, overweight 23–24.9, and obese ≥ 25.
3)Major food groups intake frequency: whole grains, protein foods group, total vegetables, vegetables excluding kimchi and pickles, fruit: intake above recommended intake frequency standard (1), intake below recommended intake frequency standard (0), and sugar-sweetened beverages, instant noodles, fast food: less than 3 times a week (1), and more than 3 times a week (0).