Table 3.

Recent representative biomaterials in the treatment of IDD.

Types of biological materials	Mode of administration	Subject	Effect	Refs.
multifunctional gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) microspheres	ex vivo and in vivo	Rats NP cells	improved the release kinetics of TGFβ3, effectively inhibited inflammatory, promoted the secretion of ECM	(Zhu et al., 2023)
NO-releasing micellar nanoparticles	ex vivo	Rats	efficiently eradicate C. acnes pathogens, inhibit the inflammatory response and osteoclast differentiation	(Tao et al., 2022)
injectable composite hydrogel scaffold	ex vivo and in vivo	Rats NP cells	increase in the proportion of M2 macrophages, higher expression levels of type II collagen, long-term anti-inflammatory effects	(Cheng et al., 2022)
injectable bioorthogonal hydrogel (BIOGEL)	ex vivo and in vivo	Rats NP cells	potentiated histological repair, functional recovery	(Luo et al., 2023)
aligned core-shell nanofibrous scaffolds loaded with TGFβ3 and IBU	ex vivo and in vivo	Rats NP cells	good anti-inflammatory ability enhance ECM formation and maintain the mechanical properties of IVD	(Han et al., 2022)
injectable collagen scaffold with ASC	ex vivo	Sheep model	less degeneration-specific features, stabilization of the disc height	(Friedmann et al., 2021)
injectable composite hydrogel, Mel-MBG/SA	ex vivo and in vivo	Rats NP cells	alleviate IL-1β-induced oxidative stress, relieve inflammation associated with IDD pathology	(Wu et al., 2023)
OxAlg with MBs combine FibGen hydrogels	ex vivo	Bovine AF cells	minimized AF cell apoptosis and retained phenotypic gene expression, biomechanically stable, promote ECM synthesis	(Panebianco et al., 2022)

TGFβ3, transforming growth factor β3; ECM, extracellular matrix; NO, nitric oxide; C.acnes, Cutibacterium acnes; IBU, ibuprofen; ASC, adipose-derived stem cells; Mel, melatonin; OxAlg, oxidized alginate; MBs, microbeads; FibGen, genipin-crosslinked fibrin.