Note: Latent variables are displayed in bold and observed variables are displayed in regular text. AP1, adoptive parent 1; AP2, adoptive parent 2; BF, birth father; BM, birth mother; DIBELS, Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills; LDS, Language Development Scale; TOPEL, Tests of Preschool Early Literacy; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III; WJ, Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Achievement III; WPPSI, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence III