Table 1.

Role of cytokines and chemokines in tumor growth and replication

	Mechanism of action
Cytokines
TNF-α [71]	Activation of nuclear factor-kappa-β (NF-kB)-signaling pathways Stimulates production of cytokines (ex. IL-6) and growth factors Induces expression of adhesion molecules
IL-1 [72]	Activation of NF-kB-signaling pathways Activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway Recruitment of immune cells to TME Stimulates production of angiogenic factors
IL-6 [72–74]	Activation of JAK-STAT3-signaling pathway Activation of PI3K/AKT-signaling pathway Recruitment of immune cells to TME Promotes epithelial–mesenchymal transition Stimulates production of angiogenic factors
HGF [75, 76]	Activates c-MET-related-signaling pathways (ex. Wnt/β-catenin signal transduction) Activation of PI3K/AKT-signaling pathway Activation of MAPK/ERK 1/2 pathway Activation of NF-kB-signaling pathways
IFN-α [77]	Activation of JAK-STAT3-signaling pathway Stimulates the production of IL-6 Upregulates expression of Bcl-2 and survivin Stimulates production of angiogenic factors
Chemokines
CCL-1 [78]	Activation of PI3K/AKT-signaling pathway Activation of ERK1/2-signaling pathways
CCL-20 [78, 79]	Participates in CCL20–CCR6 axis enhancing migration and proliferation
CCL-25 [78, 80]	Upregulates expression of MMP2 and MMP9 through CCL25–CCR9 axis