Table 2.
Multivariable Regression Models Examining Loneliness, Citizenship Status, and Psychological Distress among Older Adults, 2019–2020 California Health Interview Survey (N = 15,210)
| Variables | Model 1a | Model 1b | Model 1c | Model 1d |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| b 95% CI |
b 95% CI |
b 95% CI |
b 95% CI |
|
| Loneliness | 1.33*** [1.24, 1.43] |
1.32*** [1.23, 1.42] |
1.23*** [1.13, 1.32] |
1.08*** [0.98, 1.18] |
| Citizenship status | ||||
| US born citizen (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Naturalized citizen | 0.48*** [0.23, 0.74] |
0.11 [−0.25, 0.48] |
0.11 [−0.24, 0.45] |
−1.75*** [−2.62, −0.88] |
| Noncitizen | 0.60* [0.00, 1.20] |
0.06 [−0.54, 0.66] |
−0.18 [−0.79, 0.42] |
−2.17 [−4.68, 0.34] |
| Loneliness × citizenship status | ||||
| Loneliness × native-born citizen (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Loneliness naturalized citizen | — | — | — | 0.48*** [0.26, 0.70] |
| Loneliness × noncitizen | — | — | — | 0.53 [−0.17. 1.24] |
| Gender | ||||
| Male (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Female | — | 0.40*** [0.21, 0.59] |
0.45*** [0.26, 0.64] |
0.44*** [0.25, 0.63] |
| Race | ||||
| Non-Hispanic White (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Hispanic/Latinx | — | −0.07 [−0.43, 0.28] |
−0.24 [−0.57, 0.09] |
−0.22 [−0.57, 0.12] |
| Asian | — | 0.23 [−0.18, 0.65] |
0.01 [−0.38, 0.40] |
0.01 [−0.39, 0.41] |
| Poverty level | ||||
| 0%–99% (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| 100%–199% | — | 0.00 [−0.49, 0.50] |
0.04 [−0.46, 0.54] |
0.03 [−0.47, 0.53] |
| 200%–299% | — | −0.56** [−0.96, −0.16] |
−0.39 [−0.79, 0.01] |
−0.35 [−0.76, 0.05] |
| 300%+ FPL | — | −0.72*** [−1.10, −0.35] |
−0.48* [−0.86, −0.09] |
−0.47* [−0.85, −0.08] |
| Age | ||||
| 65–74 (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| 75–84 | — | −0.10 [−0.29, 0.09] |
−0.13 [−0.32, 0.06] |
−0.15 [−0.34, 0.03] |
| 85+ | — | −0.10 [−0.43, 0.23] |
−0.29 [−0.61, 0.04] |
−0.31 [−0.63, 0.00] |
| Marital status | ||||
| Married or partnered (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Widowed/divorced/separated/unmarried | — | −0.42*** [−0.61, −0.23] |
−0.42*** [−0.61, −0.23] |
−0.41*** [−0.60, −0.22] |
| Educational attainment | ||||
| Less than high school (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| High school graduate | — | −0.22 [−0.64, 0.20] |
−0.05 [−0.45, 0.35] |
−0.04 [−0.44, 0.36] |
| Some college | — | −0.35 [−0.74, 0.04] |
−0.08 [−0.44, 0.28] |
−0.05 [−0.42, 0.31] |
| Bachelor’s degree or higher | — | −0.49* [−0.87, −0.11] |
−0.14 [−0.48, 0.20] |
−0.11 [−0.46, 0.24] |
| Employment status | ||||
| No (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Yes | — | 0.15 [−0.05, 0.35] |
0.33** [0.12, 0.53] |
0.30** [0.10, 0.50] |
| Self-rated health | ||||
| Fair/poor (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Good | — | — | −1.51*** [−1.82, −1.19] |
−1.51*** [−1.82. −1.19] |
| Very good | — | — | −1.93*** [−2.26, −1.60] |
−1.95*** [−2.28, −1.62] |
| Excellent | — | — | −2.19*** [−2.53, −1.84] |
−2.23*** [−2.57, −1.88] |
| Medicare coverage | ||||
| No (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Yes | — | — | −0.36* [−0.71, 0.00] |
−0.34* [−0.68, 0.00] |
| Year | ||||
| 2019 (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| 2020 | 0.01 [−0.17. 0.19] |
0.00 [−0.18. 0.18] |
−0.02 [−0.19, 0.14] |
0.01 [−0.15, 0.17] |
| Constant | −2.59*** [−2.93, −2.26] |
−1.70*** [−2.19, −1.20] |
0.07 [−0.61, 0.75] |
0.60 [−0.04, 1.25] |
| R 2 | 0.29 | 0.30 | 0.35 | 0.35 |
Notes: For all models, regression coefficients and standard errors (SE) are presented, with SEs being in parentheses. Model 1a examines the association among key variables only, including citizenship status and loneliness. Model 1b examines key variables and sociodemographic factors only. Model 1c examines the key variables, sociodemographic and health factors on psychological distress. Model 1d contains all the previous variables and the moderation effect of loneliness by citizenship status. Model 1a: F(4,156) = 195.92***, R2 = 0.29. Model 1b: F(17,143) = 52.90***, R2 = 0.30. Model 1c: F(21, 139) = 59.73***, R2 = 0.35. Model 1d: F(23,137) = 56.60***, R2 = 0.35. FPL = federal poverty level.
*Indicates statistical significance at the .05 level.
**Indicates statistical significance at the .01 level.
***Indicates statistical significance at the.001 level.