Table 3.
Multivariable Regression Models Examining Loneliness, English Proficiency and Psychological Distress Among Older Adults, 2019–2020 California Health Interview Survey (N = 15,210)
| Variables | Model 2a | Model 2b | Model 2c | Model 2d |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| b 95% CI |
b 95% CI |
b 95% CI |
b 95% CI |
|
| Loneliness | 1.33*** [1.23, 1.42] |
1.32*** [1.23, 1.42] |
1.23*** [1.14, 1.33] |
1.10*** [1.00, 1.21] |
| English proficiency | ||||
| English only (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Very well/well | 0.12 [−0.11, 0.34] |
0.05 [−0.28, 0.38] |
−0.01 [−0.33, 0.31] |
−0.52 [−1.30, 0.27] |
| Not well/not at all | 1.35*** [0.87, 1.83] |
0.97** [0.29, 1.64] |
0.57 [−0.08, 1.22] |
−2.81*** [−4.31, −1.30] |
| Loneliness × English proficiency | ||||
| Loneliness × English only (ref.) | — | — | — | – |
| Loneliness × very well/well | — | — | — | 0.13 [−0.08, 0.34] |
| Loneliness × not well/not at all | — | — | — | 0.85*** [0.50, 1.20] |
| Gender | ||||
| Male (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Female | — | 0.39*** [0.20, 0.57] |
0.44*** [0.25, 0.63] |
0.43*** [0.23, 0.62] |
| Race | ||||
| Non-Hispanic White (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Hispanic/Latinx | — | −0.17 [−0.58, 0.24] |
−0.28 [−0.66, 0.11] |
−0.25 [−0.66, 0.15] |
| Asian | — | 0.07 [−0.34, 0.48] |
−0.05 [−0.44, 0.34] |
−0.12 [−0.53, 0.28] |
| Poverty level | ||||
| 0%–99% (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| 100%–199% | — | 0.10 [−0.42, 0.62] |
0.12 [−0.40, 0.64] |
0.07 [−0.45, 0.59] |
| 200%–299% | — | −0.40 [−0.82, 0.03] |
−0.28 [−0.70, 0.15] |
−0.32 [−0.74, 0.11] |
| 300%+ FPL | — | −0.55** [−0.95, −0.15] |
−0.36 [−0.76, 0.04] |
−0.42* [−0.83, −0.02] |
| Age | ||||
| 65–74 (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| 75–84 | — | −0.10 [−0.29, 0.09] |
−0.13 [−0.32, 0.06] |
−0.16 [−0.35, 0.03] |
| 85+ | — | −0.11 [−0.44, 0.22] |
−0.29 [−0.61, 0.04] |
−0.28 [−0.61, 0.04] |
| Marital status | ||||
| Married or partnered (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Widowed/divorced/separated/unmarried | — | −0.39*** [−0.57, −0.20] |
−0.40*** [−0.59, −0.22] |
−0.39*** [−0.58, −0.20] |
| Educational attainment | ||||
| Less than high school (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| High school graduate | — | 0.00 [−0.39, 0.40] |
0.09 [−0.29, 0.48] |
0.04 [−0.34, 0.43] |
| Some college | — | −0.11 [−0.47, 0.26] |
0.07 [−0.28, 0.42] |
0.05 [−0.30, 0.41] |
| Bachelor’s degree or higher | — | −0.25 [−0.60, 0.10] |
0.01 [−0.32, 0.34] |
−0.01 [−0.35, 0.33] |
| Employment status | ||||
| No (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Yes | — | 0.15 [−0.05, 0.35] |
0.32** [0.12, 0.53] |
0.31** [0.11, 0.52] |
| Self-rated health | ||||
| Fair/poor (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Good | — | — | -1.46*** [−1.77, −1.15] |
−1.46*** [−1.77, −1.14] |
| Very good | — | — | −1.87*** [−2.19, −1.55] |
−1.90*** [−2.22, −1.57] |
| Excellent | — | — | −2.13*** [−2.47, −1.79] |
−2.19*** [−2.53, −1.85] |
| Medicare coverage | ||||
| No (ref.) | — | — | — | — |
| Yes | — | — | −0.30 [−0.66, 0.05] |
−0.32 [−0.67, 0.02] |
| Year | ||||
| 2019 (ref.) | – | – | – | – |
| 2020 | 0.00 [−0.18, 0.18] |
−0.01 [−0.18, 0.17] |
−0.02 [−0.19, 0.14] |
0.05 [−0.11, 0.21] |
| Constant | −2.59*** [−2.92, −2.25] |
−2.07*** [−2.58, −1.55] |
−0.28 [−0.99, 0.42] |
0.32 [–0.36, 1.00] |
| R 2 | 0.30 | 0.31 | 0.35 | 0.36 |
Notes: For all models, regression coefficients and standard errors (SE) are presented, with SEs in parentheses. Model 2a examines the association among key variables only, including English proficiency and loneliness. Model 2b examines key variables and sociodemographic factors only. Model 2c examines the key variables, sociodemographic and health factors on psychological distress. Model 2d contains all the previous variables and the moderation effect of loneliness by English proficiency. Model 2a: F(4,156) = 210.21***, R2 = 0.30. Model 2b: F(17, 143) = 56.06***, R2 = 0.31. Model 2c: F(21, 139) = 61.18***, R2 = 0.35. Model 2d: F(23, 137) = 56.81***, R2 = 0.36. FPL = federal poverty level.
*Indicates statistical significance at the .05 level.
**Indicates statistical significance at the .01 level.
***Indicates statistical significance at the .001 level.