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. 2024 Feb 17;17:69. doi: 10.1186/s13071-024-06161-4

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Main immune-related compartments of mosquitoes. The small blue arrows indicate the general circulation pattern of the pathogens in mosquito after the mosquito feeds on blood infected with the pathogen. Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi, Plasmodium, etc. The pathogen enters the infected blood, partly develops in the intestinal epithelium, partly excretes from the intestines, and is passively transported through the mosquito's circulatory system as it crosses the haemocoel to reach the salivary glands. The large black arrows indicate the four main immune compartments, including the midgut [represented by midgut epithelial cells; containing the midgut infection barrier (MIB) and the midgut escape barrier (MEB)], salivary glands [containing the salivary gland infection barrier (SGIB) and the salivary gland escape barrier (SGEB)], haemocoel (represented by haemocytes), and fat body (represented by trophocytes and oenocytes)