Fig. 3.

Interactions among mosquitoes, gut microbes, and pathogens. Red-, purple-, green-, and blue-coloured rods with hyphae represent various gut microbes. ① Gut microbes directly inhibit viruses; ② gut microbes can inhibit viruses by stimulating basal immunity; ③ gut microbes can potentiate viruses; ④ gut microbes, such as Wolbachia, can stimulate immunity through the production of ROS; ⑤ ROS can also be coproduced by a mosquito host and microbes and inhibit bacteria and pathogens; ⑥ intracellular microbes can modulate the expression of host miRNAs; ⑦ arboviruses can either inhibit or promote gut microbes; ⑧ interactions with gut microbes can affect the microbes themselves