Cultural differences on work relations in Chinese companies operating in Ghana: A cross-cultural study of Chinese and Ghanaian workers

Abstract

Employees' cultural values and characteristics have a significant impact on work values and outcomes. Due to the strong economic ties between China and Ghana, several Chinese companies establish their branches in Ghana and employ Ghanaians to work with them. However, the role of cultural values in Chinese-Ghanaian work relationships have not been investigated. Through a qualitative lens, we investigated the cultural influence on the working relationship between Ghanaians and Chinese at a Chinese company in Ghana. The study was conducted at Asogli Thermal Plant using a case study. This is one of the biggest Chinese companies in Ghana and has a large proportion of both Chinese and Ghanaian workers. A total of 18 participants were interviewed, and data were analysed thematically. We found that Ghanaians and Chinese staff at the Thermal Plant are sometimes unable to have a collective discourse on their needs due to language barriers. Also, cultural interpretation of politeness denied them many avenues to form a strong workers’ cooperation to seek their mutual needs. These differences affect their collaboration and bonding as co-workers. To foster collaborations and good cooperation between Chinese and Ghanaian co-workers, management of such companies are advised to implement an intentional mechanism that reduces the impact of cultural differences on work relations. Such organisations need to train all staff intermittently on diversity, inclusion, and cultural values of Ghana and China in order to help staff cultivate versatility, awareness, and acceptance of alternative values.

1. Introduction

Economic and financial globalisation have made firms and organisations move beyond country-level geographical boundaries and establish themselves in other countries. Companies are increasingly discovering that their work associates, customers, and clients are of different ethnicities and cultural backgrounds. The successful operations of these companies require the collaborative effort of workers from both the host and origin countries [1]. Identifying the work values of each culture is a critical element of this process. Work culture and values, according to Ref. [2] are important for two reasons. First, they are an excellent cultural indicator because they are shaped more by sociological and cultural factors than individual psychological differences. Second, the work values of an organisation's employees influence the organisation in a variety of ways; conflict management, capacity for change, communication, and motivation of employees [2]. As a result, diversity in the workforce can assist an organisation in effectively reaching out to a wide range of clients and clientele [[3], [4], [5]]. To overcome impediments, companies should have successful collaboration and communication with all departments and units to ensure that everyone understands and accepts their co-workers’ cultural beliefs [3].

Though it is common knowledge that cultural difference does exist in companies, most employers and employees find it challenging to manage such differences when they occur [6]. The way individuals perceive things and how meanings are attached to their circumstances and situations are influenced by their unique cultures [7]. For these reasons, there is a risk of misinterpretation owing to differences in culture, values, beliefs, and upbringing, which can lead to the misreading of certain cultural norms that are pervasive in one culture in contrast to others.

The diverse cultural beliefs, practices, and traditions that various segments of employees embrace could pose a significant challenge for multicultural management [8]. A lack of awareness, comprehension and appreciation for cultural differences can breed animosity and schism among employees, thereby resulting in internal challenges with subsequent adverse implications on productivity [9]. Evidence has shown that minority groups at work, whose cultural values are not as well represented, may genuinely think that certain segments are attempting to impose their belief system on them [8]. When this occurs, misunderstandings and resentment are common outcomes [8].

Building on the discussions in the literature, it is worthy to note that China-African partnership has gained more grounds in recent years. According to China's Foreign Minister Wang Yi, this tradition demonstrates how China cherishes its connection with African countries, which is founded on their shared anti-colonial beliefs and ‘developing country’ status [10]. Since the turn of the century, China-Africa political and economic relations have become stronger, with the establishment of new cooperation institutions and increased trade and financial flows between the two blocs [11]. Due to this, most Chinese companies have expanded their operations to other African nations like Ghana in response to China's economic growth and BRI initiatives. They operate in sectors like construction, mineral extraction, and trade [12].

However, the opening of China for business and more diplomatic relations brings to the limelight the unique Chinese culture that might be significantly new to most Ghanaians. Similarly, the Ghanaian culture may be unknown to most Chinese workers and Chinese employers. As these cultures interact, the co-workers may have clashes, misunderstandings, and tensions arising from various cultural shocks. Nevertheless, the influence of culture has not been explicitly researched as an underlining theme in factors that influence work relationships in many multinational companies in Ghana. It is based upon this backdrop that this article explores the existing cultural differences across and how these differences affect their working relationships at Asogli Thermal Plant. The firm is one of the largest Chinese operating companies in Ghana, and it is jointly controlled by Shenzhen Energy Group Limited and China Africa Development Fund, with 60% and 40% stakes, respectively. Asogli Thermal Power Station is a 560 MW (750,000 hp) natural gas-fired thermal power station in Ghana. The power plant was the first privately-owned electricity generation installation in the history of Ghana. The thermal plant's workforce is made up of 30% Chinese and 70% locals. At the time of the research, the total number of Chinese at the company was 157, and the number of Ghanaians was 109. The firm was chosen because of its extensive history of operations in the Energy sector in Ghana and the cultural heterogeneity of its employees. This study is beneficial to management and human resource managers of multinational organisations as it seeks to provide a better understanding of how to handle culturally related conflicts among staff and management from different cultural orientation in order to enhance coordination and harmony within the workplace.

1.1. Theoretical frameworks

The theories of transnational communication and organisational behaviour theory underpinned this study. The concept of transnational communication originated from two concepts; globalisation and Trans Culture [13]. Globalisation can be referred to as the emergence of an international network, belonging to an economic and social system [14]. Trans culture could be referred to as the ability to comprehend and analyse the cultural elements that appear in every kind of expressive form; being it familiar or unfamiliar [1]. Transnational communication is unique from international relations as it goes across borders to deal with interactions between smaller entities in the bigger nation state by spelling out cultural phenomenon. Simply put, transnational communication has larger considerations to cultural diversities. Transnational communication has two basic characteristics; first, it relates to communication across borders and brings attention to communication framework that does not share a common identity.

In theorising Transnational Communication in relations to this work, we dwelt on the assumption of the theory. This assumption holds that transnational communication is a communicative cultural ritual [13]. Ritual can be referred as a culturally constructed system of symbolic communication that is identified among a unified group of people [15]. Transnational communication as a cultural ritual explains that communication serves as a cultural identity and that the degree of interaction between individuals is represented by the shared meaning possessed by the persons as far as the concept of communication is concerned. The works of James Carey also pointed out that a ritual view of communication is “not the act of imparting information or influence but the creation, representation and celebration of shared concepts even if illusory beliefs” [15]. Rituals, as defined above, can be represented as a language, gesture and as well an accepted mannerism of group interrelations. The theory recommends that in order to help synchronise different cultural rituals, “localisation” must take place. Localisation implies the preparation of products that can be read or understood by all transnational audiences and an example of such is the translation of safety cautions of machines into diverse languages to suit all audience in transnational companies. It was therefore crucial to find out how culture may have impact on the employees of an organisation and organisational effectiveness, hence the need to explore the theory of organisational behaviour.

Organisational behaviour is “the study and application of knowledge and how people act or behave within organisations,” [16]. The focus of this theory is on the investigation of organisational behaviour and the factors that influence it. Organisational effectiveness is also improved by applying what has been learned about individuals, groups, and the impact of structure on human behaviour. According to this theory, high morale and consistent output can be maintained through fostering close relationships among employees.

Since this theory acknowledges the existence of international forces within organisations, it is relevant to the present study. It indicates that organisations with operations in more than one country confront much more complicated circumstances because each country has its own environmental elements. Even if a corporation isn't global, happenings in other countries can nonetheless have an impact on its home operations. This theory's development and current role in corporate structure and leadership decision-making made it pertinent to this research because applying what both Chinese and Ghanaian workers have learned about each individual or group may impact organisational behaviour and culture as well as organisational effectiveness. As a result, it is pertinent to investigate the potential effects of culture on these employee interactions in the workplace.

1.2. Evidence in the international literature on cross-cultural experience

Evidence in the literature assessed the trend in various studies on organisational cultural differences [[17], [18], [19]]. Also, the available literature has demonstrated language differences, diverse rules of politeness and gestures [[19], [20], [21]] the culture of punctuality and time [22,23] and working relationships [[24], [25], [26]] in a cross-cultural context.

Moreover, the literature suggests that cultural influence on the mind and the makeup of a person cannot be explained without referring to the concept of “blank slate” coined by John Locke. The idea states that an individual is born with an insignificant or no inherent structure or ability; additionally, it sees all human beings as born the same; however, their environment, culture, and experiences shape a person's abilities, inabilities, likes, and dislikes [27]. Therefore, as individuals internalise these moral acts, a person becomes amazed and dislikes moral actions that do not conform to the precedence culture embedded in him or her. Oberg coined this as ‘cultural shock,’ the trauma precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse [28]. In other words, every organisation is made of people who have had different writing on their blank states, which guides their expectations in life.

Although the literature has revealed the significance of cultural shocks on employee's growth and management in an organisation, it fails to recognise that workers in the same country, though they may have diverse cultural backgrounds, would have familiarised themselves with the cultures of others and are unconsciously in expectations of them and therefore could be saved from some cultural shocks. In the same vain, the literature fails to recognise that workers from the same country could have frictions due to different cultural orientations, especially in a culturally diverse country. Consequently, giving culture the needed attention becomes essential when people of different and unfamiliar cultural groups co-exist in a working environment since they will be more prone to cultural shocks. These unanticipated experiences while observing others could create boundaries that prevent them from living beyond their cultural differences, preventing a conducive working environment.

Furthermore, not much exposition has been made on how familiar and unfamiliar cultural exposure can impact work relations especially in the global south. Likewise, how individuals in a working environment with different cultural backgrounds are much aware of the influence of these differences in working relationships has received little attention in Ghana. Building on this, the study seeks answers by investigating existing cultural differences in language, time orientation, punctuality, and politeness among Chinese and Ghanaian employees, as well as how these differences affect their working relationships. Besides, this study looked into the various mechanisms that Chinese and Ghanaian employees used to maintain a good working relationship despite the aforementioned cultural differences.

2. Methodology

2.1. Design

This is a qualitative research using case study approach. A case study offers the opportunity to obtain a deeper understanding of the research participants and reduces the propensity for bias. It was extremely useful and aided to achieve the objective of the study.

3. Study context

The study was conducted in one Chinese company known as the Sunon Asogli Power Plant located in the southern part of Ghana, specifically Kpone and in the neighbourhood of the harbour city of Ghana -Tema. The company was established in Ghana in 2008; however, it started commercial operations in October 2010 due to some official delays. The Thermal plant is jointly owned by Shenzhen Energy Group Limited and China Africa Development Fund with shares of 60% 40%, respectively. The workers of the thermal plant consist of 30% Chinese and 70% local people, the 70% local people consisted of 27% Ghanaians and 43% other African nationality like Nigerians, Togolese and many others. The total number of Chinese at the firm was 157 and the numbers of Ghanaian were recorded at 109. The company was selected because of its long years of operations in the country and the presence of a large heterogenous population of the sample needed, also because of the accommodation facility provided to both local workers and Chinese workers providing more accessible respondents.

4. Target population and sampling procedure

The total number of participants sampled for the study was eighteen (18), out of which eleven (11) were Ghanaians and seven (7) were Chinese. For this study, Purposive sampling and Snowballing procedures were used, and the sample size was decided by saturation. The eleven Ghanaians that were purposefully chosen satisfied the inclusion requirements. Participants from Ghana who are eligible must have worked in both Chinese and non-Chinese firms. The purposive sample strategy was acceptable since participants were chosen based on population characteristics and research objectives [29]. Purposive sampling is very effective when constructing a historical reality, describing a phenomenon, or developing something about which little is known [30].

The study, however, utilised Snowballing sampling technique to recruit the seven Chinese participants. Following repeated follow-ups to the Company by the first author, the participants were recruited. With this strategy, one Chinese who could communicate (speak and comprehend) in English was contacted initially, who then recommended the first author to additional Chinese who could speak and understand English. These Chinese workers were approached and interviewed after providing their consent. These techniques were repeated until the study reached saturation with a sample size of 18 participants. The study carefully selected this sample in order to avoid some of the potential biases associated with Purposive and Snowballing sampling procedures.

4.1. Data collection procedure

Primary data was collected through face-to-face interview using a semi-structured interview guide. A face-to-face interview aided in capturing non-verbal behaviours alongside verbal responses. All interviews were conducted in English, however, a Research Assistant who could speak Mandarin (Chinese language) was available to interpret and clarify issues, as and when necessary. Participants gladly accepted being part of the study after knowing the topic and how the interviews would be conducted. Interview time was scheduled with each participant based on the person's shift in a day. Most interviews were conducted late in the evening as most participants wanted to close from work before the interviews. With their consent, all interviews were audiotaped. We conducted the interviews at a secluded location within the company's dining hall after six (6:00 p.m.) when they were done with their dinner. Data collection lasted for four months.

5. Credibility and trustworthiness

The peer-debriefing approach was employed to establish credibility and trustworthiness. The peer debriefing or member check approach was also utilised to evaluate the participants' readings of some of the codes and expressions [31]. The interpretations were then sent to the research assistant who could speak Mandarin (Chinese) to verify for consistency in statements and opinions about the interpretations and compare them to the ones that were initially presented. Where there were contradictions in the interpretation due to language barrier, pertinent modifications were made by contacting the participants for clarification and confirmation to avoid interpretation biases. The outcomes of this helped to ensure that the codes, statements, and interpretations accurately represented what the Chinese and Ghanaian participants expressed which significantly increased the consistency, transferability, reliability and dependability of the data given in this study. This also helped addressed language barriers, minimised transcription errors during data collection and verify the information's accuracy.

5.1. Data analysis

We used the Analytic Inductive Approach with NVivo to undertake the analysis of the transcripts [32]. In order to accomplish this goal, the raw data were condensed into categories or themes based on the findings of the literature research and the theoretical framework that served as the basis for the study. In the second step, we immersed ourselves in the data and watched as themes surfaced from within the data we gathered. A detailed run-through of the data helped in the theming of the various coded sections, and themes were reviewed to ensure they corresponded with the content, followed by a definition of the themes and write-up. An inter-coding approach known as testing for inter-coding agreement was utilised in order to test the codes to ensure that the themes and codes are consistent with one another. At the end of the thematic analysis, eight themes were generated; Cross-cultural language differences and work relations, employment of an interpreter as a mechanism to solve language difference, Chinese and Ghanaians’ attitude towards time and work, cultural interpretation of politeness and gestures, cross-cultural interpretation of the Chinese management system, learning English and Chinese as a mechanism to solve language difference, out-of-work bonding strategy and translanguaging practices.

5.2. Ethical considerations

The study received ethics approval from Beijing Normal University's School of Social Development and Public Policy. Also, ethical approval was obtained from the Ministry of Human Resource Relations in Ghana. Afterwards, an introductory letter and ethics clearance was served to the necessary office at the Asogli Thermal Plant. The researchers explained the aim of the study to the research participants and assured all participants of their privacy. All respondents read the information sheet and signed the consent form before the interviews commenced. Their permission was sought for audio-tape recording and pseudonyms were used in reporting in order to conceal their real identities.

6. Results

6.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of research participants

The participant sample characteristics were provided to offer the reader with critical information about the participants. Participants' socio-demographic characteristics analysed include their gender, age, nationality, province or region of origin, department and numbers of years worked. The participants characteristics are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Demographic information of participants.

Participants	Gender	Age	Nationality	Province/region of origin	Department	Year worked
1	Male	27	Ghanaian	Volta	Operations	3years, 1month
2	Male	26	Ghanaian	Ashanti	Operations	1year, 6 months
3	Female	27	Ghanaian	Volta	Administration	4years
4	Male	29	Ghanaian	Greater Accra	Operations	1year, 6month
5	Male	30	Ghanaian	Eastern	Operations	1year, 6months
6	Male	32	Ghanaian	Ashanti	Control	1year, 6months
7	Male	28	Ghanaian	Volta	Control	1year
8	Male	29	Ghanaian	Greater Accra	Control	2years,2months
9	Male	31	Ghanaian	Eastern	Supply	3years, 1 month
10	Male	30	Ghanaian	Volta	Supply	2years, 5months
11	Male	31	Ghanaian	Ashanti	System	3years
12	Male	30	Chinese	Beijing	Operations	4years
13	Male	34	Chinese	Guangzhou	Operations	2years
14	Male	29	Chinese	Shenzhen	Operations	3years
15	Male	27	Chinese	Shenzhen	Operations	4years
16	Male	27	Chinese	Guangzhou	Control	1year
17	Male	32	Chinese	Guangzhou	Control	4years
18	Male	31	Chinese	Guangzhou	Control	2years
		3

Source: Researchers construct 2023.

Eighteen (18) participants were interviewed comprising eleven (11) Ghanaians and seven (7) Chinese. Four out of the eleven Ghanaian participants hailed from the Volta Region of Ghana, three from the Ashanti Region, two from the Eastern Region, and the remaining two from the Greater Accra region (see Table 1). Chinese participants were from Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Beijing, respectively. Gender-wise, out of the eighteen participants interviewed, the study had only one Ghanaian female in the administration department. Since the area of operation of the Thermal plant was basically engineering which had fewer female representations at the various universities the study had only one female who was at the administration department and a Ghanaian. Also, Chinese participants were between the ages of 27–34 years, whiles the Ghanaians were 26–32 years (see Table 1). The Chinese respondents comprised of two senior staff members or boss and five Chinese junior staff member who were also co-workers of the Ghanaians since all the Ghanaian were only junior staff members. Participants associated themselves with a different department. Out of the seven Chinese respondents, four were from the Operations Department, and three were from the Control Department. With the Ghanaian respondents, four were from the Operations Department, three from the Control Department, two from the Supply Department, one from the Systems Department and one from Administration. With the number of years work, the highest number of the year worked at the factory among Chinese and Ghanaians was four years maximum and one-year minimum and three years maximum and one-year minimum respectfully (see Table 1).

The following are specific ways that demonstrate the existing cultural differences among Chinese and Ghanaian employees, how these differences affect their working relationships and ways they co-exist to ensure organisational effectiveness; 1) Cross-cultural Language differences and work relations 2) Employment of an interpreter as a mechanism to solve language difference 3) Chinese and Ghanaians’ attitude towards time 4) Cultural interpretation of politeness and gestures 5) Cross-cultural interpretation of the Chinese management system 6) Learning English and Chinese as a Mechanism to solve language difference 7) Out-of-Work Bonding Mechanism and 8) Translanguaging practices. The themes and sub themes that emerged are discussed as follows.

7. Existing cultural differences and work relations

Various themes emerged from the participants responses as the existing cultural practices that affect work relations among both Chinese and Ghanaian workers. The themes have been discussed as follows.

7.1. Cross-cultural language differences and work relations

There was a unanimous echo that language differences affected their everyday interactions. All respondents agreed that language difference affected their everyday interactions, largely on their work relations and the outside of work relations. To most interviewees, the language difference significantly affected their work output since the repetition of words for clarification causes delays in productivity. Concerns were that even though delays in conversations lasted for a few minutes, which might not be significant, consistency in such delays affect the firm's total production time. One participant commented:

“The number of times we say; ‘you say what’, ‘you say what’ is enough to delay work, it's sometimes annoying" (Participant 4; Ghanaian; Dept-Operations; Years worked: 1.6year).

This sentiment was also shared by one Chinese who commented that; “Conversation is a big issue, but we learn English small so we talk well. Local people don't understand my English and local people try teach me English small so it affects communication and delay work” (Participant 12, Chinese, Dept: Operations, years worked: years).

Findings revealed that workers sometimes pretend to have understood a communication pattern. They do this by going ahead to nod their heads or smiling to reduce the delays and sometimes overlook essential instructions needed to execute their duties. The participants accepted that sometimes the misunderstanding they may face as a result of language barrier or miscommunication lead to workers been punished which sometimes affect their job. A participant narrated that:

“One day, a guy was about to turn a pump off. I was then at the local station. Due to the language barrier, he called and said I wanted to stop the water pump. His English was not so good, so I intentionally nodded and asked him to repeat, but he did not wait, and he turned off a running machine pump which caused the machine to trip. Since the recovery process took a long time, the guy was sent back to China, and my friend was also punished. It was awful." (Participant 7, Ghanaian, Dept: Control, years worked: 1year)

Another participant also shared similar concern by saying that:

“I remember one of our senior colleagues was given a permit in Chinese and he showed to one Chinese for translation and the Chinese said he is supposed to close a valve with no detailed explanation because he could not explain himself in English and could not tell that one valve was faulty and it was not supposed to be closed. The Ghanaian guy also pretended his understood him and went on to closed it which got the whole place flooded. I think with the language we have a long way to go, it is really a problem” (Participant 2, Ghanaian, Department: control, years worked: 1year, 6 month)

7.2. Employment of an interpreter as a mechanism to solve language difference

The need for an interpreter was assessed using various questions while observing participants' reactions to estimate the degree to which it is necessary. Most participants objected the employment of an interpreter. The presence of an interpreter is seen to pose a more significant threat of diminishing the already existing relationship between them and reducing the validity of first-hand information. Most respondents believed that as they interacted and communicated with a lot of frictions, there are greater chances of development than engaging an interpreter who would be the mediator of their conversations. Twelve of the participants believed that the presence of an interpreter poses a greater threat of diminishing the already existing relationship between them. Most participants commented that, though there was no strong relationship, the little interaction was preferred to be secured and would develop over time. A participant asserted that:

“hahahhaha interpreter!!!! Oh no, we have not gotten to that; engineering in its nature does not require a lot of speaking. We all know what we are about that is why we are here in the first place, so I think having an interpreter will distract our working process a lot." (Participant 8, Ghanaian, Dept: Control, years worked: 2.2years)

Though the need for an interpreter was not welcome by a greater number of the participants, its importance was also brought to light by some of the respondents. Six participants admitted that the language barrier really affected operations and that there is a great need for an interpreter to smoothen communications since it could minimise some minor mistakes that occurred around production. While one Chinese respondent added that although the employment of an interpreter is needed, he thinks it would best benefit the administration section of the company instead of the operations since that department conducts a lot of written documentation and also the first call of attention for both Chinese and Ghanaian visitors. One of them said that:

“I think when we get an interpreter it is good, especially it will benefit the administration section of the company instead of the operations because it conducts a lot of written documentation and also the first call of attention for both Chinese” (Participant 15, Chinese, Dept: Operations, years worked: 4years)

7.3. Chinese and Ghanaians’ attitude towards time and work

More insights were made into the Chinese and Ghanaians' orientation to time and work and how these different cultural values and orientations have shaped their work relations. Respondents’ revealed different perceptions about punctuality, regularity and attitude to time at work. Ten of the Ghanaian respondents said that Ghanaians are less punctual than Chinese, but this was hardly evident because there are systems that check punctuality, which kept most Ghanaians on their toes. There was a unanimous acceptance from both groups that not being time conscious is significantly part of the culture of most Ghanaian. One of the participants for instance said that:

“The culture of Ghana man time is really affecting we the Ghanaians, we hardly report to work on time and sometimes not punctual, this is not the case of the Chinese. But now we have stopped and we report to work early because there are punitive measures” (Participant, 8, Ghanaian, Dept: Control, 2 years, 2 months)

The participants commented that Ghanaians at the firm were seen to be punctual to work because of the punishment system, which poses a lot of fear in workers. They further indicated that the deduction of there is a deducted of $60 from one's salary when the person reports to work late and this has been a major deterrent against lateness or absenteeism for most Ghanaian workers.

“Truly, I report to work early because I don’t want them to deduct my money. This has really made be to be time conscious and discipline, the $60 is a big money to be deducted from my salary so I don’t want to lose it” (Participant, 6. Ghanaian, Dept: Control, years worked: 1 year, 6months).

It was admitted that the clocking system is not part of the Ghanaian society and Ghanaian companies which makes it difficult for most Ghanaian workers to adhere to. The Ghanaian participants accepted that since they are not used to the clocking system, they are sometimes report late at work which makes them receive little salary. One Ghanaian participant commented that:

“Hmmm yes, this place they will deduct your money any time you report late …. I remember when I was doing my service I used to report late. When I started working here I found it difficult to stop, but now I have stopped because of the deduction policy” (Participant 4, Ghanaian, Dept: Operations, years worked: 1year, 6 months)

However, the Chinese participants accepted that although Ghanaians do not report to work on time, and like chatting whiles working, they have a strong commitment to work. They accepted that Ghanaian workers are always bold and confident to challenge some policies and their bosses on issues affecting their welfare. The Chinese participants confirmed that Ghanaian workers worked faster and were able to meet all targets. They commented that the Ghanaian workers are hardworking and have enough energy and can use little time to produce enough. One of them said:

The local people work hard, they have energy and can work more than us. They are really hardworking because they want the money (Participant 17, Chinese, Dept: Control, years worked: 4years).

When the same question was asked regarding Chinese orientation to time and work and how these different orientations assume some roles have shaped their work relations and output, the general perception held about Chinese had different twists. For instance, all the eleven Ghanaian participants accepted that the Chinese as more culturally conforming and perceived their existence as a culture of fear, enabling them to abide by strict rules and regulations such as reporting to work on time and been punctual. They added that the Chinese were hardly seen agitating for new policies or regulations change but preferred to complain in lower tones to the Ghanaian workers during shift time but would scarcely do that to the hearing of their Chinese bosses. One of the participants had this to say:

“The Chinese are law-abiding. They do not want trouble with their bosses. The Chinese always tried hard to comply with strict or complex rules and can obey instructions such as the clocking system more than their Ghanaian counterparts. They are afraid to complain about any policy. So, they are always punctual and regular at work (Participant 2, Ghanaian, Department: control, years worked: 1year, 6 month)

Regarding attitude towards work, the Ghanaian participants commented that the Chinese had a great attitude towards work. The participants believed that the Chinese approached work with zeal had maximum concentration while on the job. Also, the participants commented that Chinese were hardly noticed chatting at the site and they worked in quiet, solemn environments, to maximise the time. One participant said;

“We like chatting when working but I will say that some of the Chinese are not like that, I don't know if we can stop, you see it's like the culture thing we are discussing, Ghanaians always want to socialise even when working" (Participant 11, Ghanaian, Dept: Control, years worked: 1year)

The Chinese workers also confirmed this by commenting that they sometimes lobby to co-work with their fellow Chinese on a shift since Ghanaians always make noise, at work which could affect their work relations and concentration. One of them said

“I want to concentrate when working so I want to partner another Chinese at night shift. The local people like chatting when working and I am not used to that” (Participant, 14, Chinese, Dept: Operations, 3years)

However, a few of the Ghanaian participants observed that Chinese are timid and expressed more significant discomfort and fear in their daily interactions at work. They accepted that most Chinese workers cannot defend themselves when called before the disciplinary committee. A respondent implied that some Ghanaians had defended their cases to the disciplinary committee and freed themselves from punishment. However, the Chinese do not talk when they go there. Due to this, some of them (Chinese workers) stood there and cried or pleaded guilty to reduce penalties they did not deserve. A Ghanaian respondent reported that;

“No matter how tough new law is, you don't find the Chinese complaint about them. They can adjust and leave with the new law, they hardly comment on any new policy or law." (Participant 7, Ghanaian, Dept: Supply, years worked: 1year)

7.4. Cultural interpretation of politeness and gestures

This section looks at how Chinese and Ghanaians understand politeness in cultural terms and how the contrast in interpretation altered their work relations. All Chinese participants accepted that they were more respectful to bosses than their colleagues Ghanaians. Some of the reasons given were that most Ghanaian workers did not acknowledge the presence of bosses when they came around. The Chinese participants commented that their Ghanaian colleagues portrayed strong agitation mannerism and posture before their bosses, such as throwing hands while talking to their bosses, which was a great sign of disrespect. In responding to same question, Ghanaian participants alleged Chinese workers pretend to be humble as they sometimes see them portraying gestures of disrespect right after the departure of bosses. According to the Ghanaian participants, being humble does not mean they should express so much fear before their bosses. They accepted that suggestions or complaints of unpleasant acts could be conveyed to bosses in a very humble manner but are misinterpreted by the Chinese as disrespectfulness.

“We the Ghanaian workers always want to fight for what is due us, we always fight for our welfare in a polite manner but sometimes this attitude is misinterpreted as disrespect but it is not so, we just want fairness" (Participant 11, Ghanaian, Dept: Control, years worked: 1year)

7.5. Cross-cultural interpretation of the Chinese management system

In general, all Ghanaian respondents considered the management system of Chinese to be strict and exclusive. They reported they are mostly not involved in decision-making and that it is common among Chinese to make decisions from the top and then command them through the lower administrative ladder officials. That excludes their opinions in certain decisions taken concerning them. The participants observed that the Chinese management system of the company introduce more warnings and punishment than the reward system. They commented that Chinese bosses always saw an excellent job as workers' responsibility; however, they always haste to punish when something goes wrong. An interviewee expressed that;

“Chinese companies and especially the bosses here are strict and do not involve the workers in decision making. They take decisions from the above and implement without our knowledge even though such decisions affect we the workers. Ghanaian managed companies do not operate like that”(Participant 6, Ghanaian, Dept: control, years worked: 1year, six months)

7.6. Mechanism to solve organisational cultural differences

Participants also shared their views on how despite their cultural differences they come together to co-exist to form and organisational culture to ensure organisational effectiveness. The themes that emerged as discussed as follows.

7.7. Learning English and Chinese as a mechanism to solve language difference

Communicating in English was easier for the Ghanaians in the firm than for some Chinese and as a result, a greater section of the Chinese reported the need for learning English than the Ghanaians. They reported the existence of English language exams conducted by the firm to assess the proficiency and progress of the Chinese as far as the English Language is concerned. Though the intermediary English examination was considered difficult, they appreciated a system that formally ensured their English learning pace and wished some systems ensured Ghanaians to also learn Chinese. A Chinese respondent was of the opinion that:

“If Ghanaians workers are made to learn Chinese that will be good because we also compelled by management to learn English and write exams although the exam is really difficult. Sometimes our salary is depended on whether we pass our English language test or not. You are paid good salary when you pass the English test but your money will be small if you fail, this is not good" (Participant 18, Chinese, Dept: control, years worked: 2 years)

Some Chinese participants admitted that their interactions with Ghanaians at the workplace improved their English language proficiency one way or the other. The act of Ghanaians repeating correct words after they [Chinese] have mentioned wrong words helped them to learn the correct pronunciation. Most Chinese respondents said that their constant presence among Ghanaians has helped them increase their vocabulary. Some of them indicated that listening to the Ghanaians talk enhanced their vocabulary more than the English class. One of them opined:

“We learn from our Ghanaian locals, when we interact with them, we are able to also speak and understand English. So, I believe that if that has helped more that the English class, so management should intentionally put in measures to encourage as to interact among ourselves more and learn the core languages for communication. By this we will overcome the setbacks brought about by language limitations” (Participant 17, Chinese, Dept: Control, years worked: 4years).

Assessing the rate of interest shown by Ghanaians towards learning Chinese revealed negative connotations. Most Ghanaian participants claimed they had no interest in learning Chinese and heard that it was challenging. However, should there be an imposition to learn Chinese by management, they would have no choice. Since the company is a Chinese company, they implied that if management asked for a bit of knowledge in the Chinese language, it would not be too much for the government to grant, even if they organised a strong protest. For instance, one of the said that:

“We don't want, but if our bosses bring it up, we will talk about it, but still we will do" (Participant 10, Ghanaian, Dept: Supply, years worked: 2 years, 5months).

Another participant shared these same views by commenting that:

“No, we heard Chinese is difficult, am in my country why do I worry to learn Chinese. I do not think management will think of making it compulsory but if it's made compulsory we will do it but hmmm why Chinese” (Participant 5, Ghanaian, Dept: control, years worked: 1year, 6 months)

Out-of-Work Bonding Strategy.

This theme emerged as participants realised that their interpersonal relationships outside of work are the only way they co-exist to collaboratively guarantee the efficiency of the company. There was a consensus among the Chinese participants that they and their Ghanaian co-workers have developed close personal relationships outside of the office hours. According to the Chinese participants, they occasionally visit the houses of their Ghanaian acquaintances in order to try local food. They accepted that this is something they can only accomplish on their own time or during their off days. This is what one Chinese participant had to say:

I sometimes visit one of my Ghanaian friends who works here, but I do that on holidays or weekends (Participant 18, Chinese, Dept: control, years worked: 2 years)

This view was also accepted by all the Ghanaian participants as they believed that out of work bonding has really made them appreciate their Chinese colleagues which has deepened their understanding and appreciation of Chinese culture. He said that

I have one of the Chinese workers as friends, although we find it different to talk in Chinese or English, he comes to my house especially when we are on holidays or break. He tries to eat some of our local Ghanaian food and he likes it. But you see, we can only have this kind of bonding outside working environment because we cannot do this at the work place (Participant 11, Ghanaian, Dept: Control, years worked: 1year)

However, some of the Ghanaian participants commented that their relationship with their fellow Chinese workers outside working environment is stronger than that of their Chinese bosses. Four Ghanaian participants attributed this to the superior-subordinate relations that exist between them and their Chinese bosses. One of them said:

Chinese bosses did not give space for off work relationships to be built and that any time an attempt is made to bridge the gap they acted in ways that do not show interest in relationship because they are the bosses” (Participant 7, Ghanaian, Dept: Supply, years worked: 1year)

All participants further expressed concern for the need to be given enough off-days by their Chinese bosses since it is the only avenue both groups meet and share bonding for organisational growth and effectiveness. One Ghanaian worker had this to say:

“I think if we are giving enough time outside working hours we can understand each other better and this will help the organisation to flourish” (Participant 6, Ghanaian, Dept: control, years worked:

1year, six months).

7.8. Translanguaging practices

When participants were asked about the way forward regarding how they will be able to manage their cultural differences at work, both Chinese and participants recommended that management should allow them to blend several languages and gestures to enable them to understand one another than strictly adopting English language as the medium of interaction. For instance, one Chinese participant commented that;

“We have to combine several languages and actions so that we can understand each other” (Participant 17, Chinese, Dept: Control, years worked: 4years).

This was also supported by one Ghanaian participant who said that:

They should allow us to blend several languages including English, Chinese and even Twi. The Chinese people are able to understand the Twi language when we combine with actions and gestures so I think that should be the way forward” (Participant 7, Ghanaian, Dept: Supply, years worked: 1year

8. Discussion

This paper contributes to transnational communication and organisation behaviour theories by investigating how Chinese and Ghanaians working in the same organisation perceive the impact of culture on their work relationships and the how they co-exist for organisational effectiveness. To help synchronise the theoretical frameworks and the above case study, cultural elements such as language, gestures, punctuality, and politeness and their impact on employee's behaviour were investigated. Cultural ritual is defined as a culturally constructed system of symbolic communication that is identified among a unified group of people [1].

The assumption of the theory of transnational communication is that if a cultural ritual appears to be incongruent between Chinese employers and Ghanaian employees, we assume that the working relationship will suffer; however, if there is a common cultural ritual, there may be a good communication and interaction among workers, and thus a good relationship may be established. When these assumptions are applied to Chinese and Ghanaians working at Asogli Thermal Plant, the Chinese appear to have a positive work culture relative to the Ghanaians. Interactions between these different cultures can cause tension, shock, misunderstanding, and poor relationships due to their existing cultural differences and organisational effectiveness. The theory recommends localisation of these “cultural rituals” in a single work unit, localisation mechanisms such as translators, and awareness creation of cultural diversity to help harmonies these different cultural rituals or elements [13].

Language was identified as the first call of attention in an attempt to understand the perception Chinese and Ghanaians held about their work relationships and how it is influenced by cultural factors. Responses to the question were consistent with other literature, such as [33] and the two parties were aware of the language difference between them and the extent to which it influenced their work output as well as their out-of-work relationships. These findings appear to be consistent with the findings of [34] who found that language differences had a negative impact on the performance of diverse European hockey teams compared to homogeneous teams.

The findings revealed that both Chinese and Ghanaians had outlived language problem to the point where they do not realise the need for the involvement of a third party, such as an interpreter. Rather, they perceived the language difference positively, preferring to learn each other's language through their mistakes rather than seeking an interpreter. This first shows that the interpreter's role space is positioned and constantly negotiated between the interpreter and the other participants rather than being a given [35]. This further reinforces research showing that employees' reluctance to use an interpreter stems from issues with accuracy as well as misconceptions about interpreters' jobs and a lack of cultural awareness [36,37].

Nonetheless, a critical examination of the language problem that existed between them and the nature of their work suggest that the impact of it was minimal due to the nature of their work, which was highly technical and required a high level of expertise and little communication. This may not apply to any socially established firms, such as an NGO, where concrete deliberations and discussion must take place before actions are taken for project beneficiaries. The presence of interpreters could facilitate the scheduling of meetings and discussion of issues concerning their well-being, as well as the various approaches of dealing with their bosses to ensure that management decisions are favorable to them. The findings support the work of [38] that it appears interpreters’ role are more proactive and dynamic at the work place, and that they are genuinely active participants in intercultural communication settings as a whole.

The Chinese management culture was described to be strict nature, whereby superior-subordinate relations was recorded as being paramount. This was recorded in the study as Chinese bosses were said to be exhibiting acts of superiority and implanting a sense of timidity, fear, and a punitive environment. This was said to create a gap in building an effective work relationship with Ghanaian workers, which culturally sheds more light on Confucius' belief of subordination [39]. This could also indicate that Chinese companies are strict and firm with established policies and have less tolerance for mistakes and insubordinations, which, while seemingly positive, was new to Ghanaian workers and was misinterpreted as unfairness, affecting their relationships to some extent. Hence, Chinese firms in Ghana need to dedicate ample time to orient Ghanaian employees on the Chinese management system in order for them to appreciate the system and nurture a positive mindset towards the system.

The Ghanaian work culture reflects interactive setting at work, which replicates itself in the act of chatting and communicating while on the job [40]. This is inconsistent with the Chinses system and interpreted as distraction to work. It is unacceptable to the Chinese to the extent that some of them lobbied to work with their Chinese counterparts on a shift due to the noise made by the Ghanaians. Regardless of the Chinese’ negative experience with most Ghanaians workers, Chinese co-workers confirmed that Ghanaians worked faster and met all targets. Thus, singing or chatting at work does not necessarily reduce their output. This supports the study of [41] that Ghanaian workers tend to give everything, are dedicated, and work with passion.

Under the Chinese management system, management decisions appeared more difficult to Ghanaians. Given that Chinese workers hardly complain, as hinted by the Ghanaians, whilst Ghanaian workers seem to have free vocal spirit to communicate their fears, there seems to be a contrast in work cultures which management would have to deal with. If not handled properly, this might eventually sting the relationship between Ghanaian workers and their Chinese bosses. Thus, the Chinese superiors would always be tempted to implement systems in the interest of Chinese at the expense of the Ghanaians as the Chinese would typically not complain. Such occurrence could mar the relationship between the workers and adversely affect productivity, hence the need for intermittent training on work ethics and acceptable work cultural values.

Despite their ethnic or cultural distinctions, the study's findings show that Chinese and Ghanaian workers function as one cohesive group. Participants identified length of service with the organisation as a significant factor. Both employees' ability to adjust culturally is impacted by this factor. Chinese workers, for example, have gotten to know some of their Ghanaian co-workers by eating local food and building friendship. The Ghanaian workforce has embraced the culture of their Chinese peers and adapting to Chinese bosses' leadership styles. Although culture is intangible [42], argues that it is possible for an organisation to develop a strong culture through conscious efforts. This evidence demonstrates that expats who stay with a multinational firm for an extended period of time develop a sense of cultural awareness, which changes how they view cultural differences and leads to better cultural adaptations. As a result, it's important to view the process of adjusting to a new culture as having multiple components rather than a unitary phenomenon.

One further way in which the workers show this is by developing a sense of camaraderie outside of normal working hours and days. The attitude of the workers demonstrates how important organisational culture is as well as the significance it plays in the cultural disparities that exist between different countries. This demonstrates that multinational firms operating in other countries needs to pay attention to the importance of their organisational culture because it plays a vital part in achieving overall organisational performance [[43], [44], [45]].

Our findings also indicated that translanguaging could be a strategic approach for multinational firms and multilingual users to negotiate their lingual space within the social milieu of English as the suitable organisational language [46,47]. Translanguaging emanates as an alternative strategy to the English monolingual presumption [48] for employees with relatively low language competence in order for them to establish a linguistic and communicative space [46]. In this regard, translanguaging can be viewed as scaffolding to make up the difference for their faulty communication and facilitate communication.

9. Policy implications and conclusion

The study illuminates cultural perceptions and differences among Chinese and Ghanaians and how cultural elements influence their work relations and how they co-exist to ensure organisational success. It is evident that regardless of the nature of the work at Asogli Thermal Plant, cultural differences play some critical roles. It was notable to realise that Chinese and Ghanaian co-workers had no common grounds to relate away from work-related interaction, which eliminates all avenues to learn from each other's culture and experiences. It is very enlightening how other phenomena not captured under the umbrella of culture are perceived as cultural elements that influence behaviours and actions, such as the management style adopted by Chinese employers. It is expedient that multinational companies consciously draw their workers attention to the diverse cultural variations, diversity and inclusion through intensive training sessions and orientations.

This study has strong implications for multinational corporations, as they may benefit not just subordinate employees but also overseas managers who are sent to extremely different cultures by providing them with cultural preparation and training. Some authentic customs and facts about the host nation should be emphasised. However, it's probable that training should vary for expats assigned to cultures that are either comparable or quite different from their own. Workers in host nations should also put a premium on cultural preparation and training. In order for this training to be effective, it must inspire individuals to break beyond their habitual patterns of thought and action. To this end, intercultural training should highlight the minor but crucial distinctions between the near host culture and the dominant global culture.

Also, to foster collaborations and good cooperation of workers from different backgrounds, multinational organisations could initiate staff representation councils or groups consisting of workers from all nationalities within the firm's labour force, as this may create avenues for interaction and deliberations on matters of mutual concern. Managements of such organisations are advised to put in robust mechanisms that reduces the limitation of cultural differences on work relations.

Because of the continual shifts occurring in multi-ethnic working population, administrators must enable the workforce to reach out to different stakeholders by creating an environment at work that embraces various attributes of the culture groups that comprise a workforce [49]. Such customs foster effective relationships with a wide range of clients and customers. Having to learn about differences in culture can promote mutual understanding, which benefits the firm. Managing the workplace's cultural diversity through groups, nationalities, or global regions can boost mutual trust, cultural awareness and relevance. The study has established that though large cultural groups share many characteristics, each nationality has distinct differences. Managers must not only understand the various cultural traits of their company and locations to succeed, but they must also be willing to ascertain the unique mix of each place of work.

Limitations

This study was not void of limitations, as language differences also caused a limitation since the Chinese struggled in communicating with the researchers in English. When necessary, the researchers had to fall on an interpreter, which delimited first-hand information to some extent. Notwithstanding, the study methodology and processes provided an accurate finding as experienced by the participants without any prejudice.

Data availability statement

Data will be made available on request.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Funding statement

This study did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Victoria Ankrah: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Jacob Oppong Nkansah: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation. Benjamin Annor: Validation, Supervision, Project administration.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.