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. 2024 Feb 21;8:42. doi: 10.1038/s41698-024-00534-9

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Referred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flow diagram for study illustrating the number of records screened in the review and articles included and excluded, outlining the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. In total, 56 articles were included in the review and 35 articles were excluded, reasons for exclusion were reported. Seven studies exploring CT-based radiomics models for predicting programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression were included in the meta-analysis.