Table 1.

Studies on the Use of TUS for BRD Diagnosis and Prognosis: Objective of Studies and Key Findings.

Objective	Study Design	Sample Size	Date of the Published Study	Location	Key Findings	Reference
Assessing the diagnostic and prognostic utility of lung ultrasonography in BRD	longitudinal design	600	2023	Austria	High sensitivity (86%) and specificity (78%)	[163]
Assessing TUS’s diagnostic and prognostic value in initial BRD cases	Prospective longitudinal study	174	2012	Canada	TUS proved valuable in targeted populations of animals with prolonged respiratory disease.	[29]
Improving BRD detection in experimental infection using TUS	Experimental Study	62	2021	USA	TUS is a rapid predictor of lung lesions in pre-weaned dairy calves. TUS can identify calves with clinical and subclinical pneumonia with high sensitivity. TUS detects abnormal lung pathology missed by clinical scoring alone. TUS score correlates strongly with gross lung pathology on necropsy	[164]
Assessing the impact of lung consolidation detected via TUS on health and growth outcomes in BRD	Longitudinal Study	221	2023	Iran	The sensitivity ranges from 86% to 94% and the specificity ranges from 98% to 100%. Additionally, one or more consolidation episodes resulted in a significantly lower ADG.	[165]
Assessing subclinical lung lesions in Holstein calves using TUS and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis.	Prospective study	25	2015	Canada	TUS had a 94% sensitivity and 100% specificity in detecting lung lesions related to subclinical BRD in healthy calves.	[111]
Evaluating the accuracy and inter-rater reliability of lung auscultation among bovine practitioners relative to TUS findings	Diagnostic test study	49	2019	Netherlands	TUS is the most accurate for practical use in the field	[166]
Assessing the association of clinical respiratory signs and lung lesions detected via TUS with growth performance in pre-weaned dairy calves	Retrospective cohort study	53	2021	Ireland	TUS found lung consolidation in healthy calves, and severe lung lesions affected their pre-weaning growth.	[67]
Assessing the efficacy of TUS for diagnosing BRD in preweaned dairy calves	Longitudinal study	60	2023	USA	The sensitivity and specificity of TUS vary depending on the scoring method used.	[167]
Evaluating the efficacy of lung ultrasonography and clinical assessments in monitoring BRD in fattening bulls during restocking and post-treatment with tulathromycin and ketoprofen	case time-series analysis	60	2022	Italy	TUS presents a higher sensitivity (80–94%) and specificity (94–100%) than clinical scoring to detect lung lesions. It is a non-invasive and cost-effective tool for BRD early diagnosis and for monitoring treatment efficacy.	[51]