Table 5.

Protective effects of sulforaphane against toxic substances: evidence from in vitro and animal studies.

Species	Toxic Substance	Sulforaphane (SFN)	Results	References
human hepatocyte cell line (LO2) and C57/BL6J mice	bisphenol A (BPA): 100, 1000 nM for 24 h	SFN (0.25 μM, 0.5 μM) for 24 h	Ameliorated BPA-altered hepatic lipid metabolism Ameliorated ER stress-related markers	Hong et al., 2023 [81]
mouse Leydig (TM3) cells	Cadmium (Cd): 10 μmol/L for 24 h	SFN (2.5, 5, 10 μmol/L) for 24 h	Reduced the release of lactate dehydrogenase Caused changes in testosterone concentration Increased levels of antioxidant enzymes Inhibited the production of malondialdehyde or reactive oxygen species Protective effect against Cd-induced oxidative stress	Yang et al., 2019 [75]
mouse HepG2 cells	in vitro: cadmium chloride (CdCl2): 20 μM for 24 h; in vivo: cadmium chloride (CdCl2): 10 mg/kg b.w/day, per os, 4 weeks	in vitro: SFN (0–80 μM) for 24 h; in vivo: SFN (0.5, 1, 2 mg/kg b.w/day), per os, 6 weeks	Antioxidant effects—scavenged free radicals Antioxidant effects—improved redox homeostasis Anti-inflammatory effects—attenuated the expressions of the liver inflammatory factors	He et al., 2021 [76]
mouse alveolar type II epithelial cell line (MLE-12)	in vitro: potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7): 1 mg/mL for 24 h after SFN	in vitro: pretreating with 0.1 mM SFN for 30 min	Increased the expression of Nrf2 phase II detoxification enzymes Prevented Cr-induced lung toxicity in rats	Lv et al., 2020 [77]
35-day Cr-induced pulmonary toxicity model	in vivo: potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7): 6, 4, and 2 mg/kg b.w/day, per os, 35 days	in vivo: SFN (4 mg/kg b.w/day), subcutaneous injection	Prevented Cr-induced oxidative stress Prevented histopathological lesions, inflammation, apoptosis, and changes in protein kinase B (Akt) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK-3b) levels
rats	potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7): 4 mg/kg b.w/day, intraperitoneal injection, 4 weeks	SFN (4 mg/kg b.w/day), subcutaneous injection 1 h after K2Cr2O7 treatment, 4 weeks	Alleviated hematological variations, oxidative stress, heart dysfunction and structure disorder, and cardiomyocyte apoptosis induced by K2Cr2O7 Ameliorated Cr(VI)-induced cardiotoxicity via activation of the Sesn2/AMPK/Nrf2 signaling pathway	Yang et al., 2020 [80]
rats	sodium arsenite (NaAsO2): 5 mg/kg b.w/day, per os, 28 days	SFN (80 mg/kg b.w/day), per os, 28 days	Antioxidant effects—attenuated renal reactive oxygen species, 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine, lipid peroxidation, and DNA damage Increased phase II antioxidants Protection against Ar-induced nephrotoxicity.	Thangapandiyan et al., 2019 [78]
rats	sodium arsenite (NaAsO2) (5 mg/kg b.w/day), oral, 4 weeks	SFN (20, 40, 80 mg/kg b.w/day), oral, 4 weeks (administered 90 min before As)	Protective effect for arsenic-induced oxidative stress Prevented arsenic-induced liver toxicity	Thangapandiyana et al., 2019 [79]
rats	aluminum chloride (AlCl3) (100 mg/kg b.w/day), per os	SFN (100 mg/kg b.w), per os	Improved motility, viability, and sperm count, hormone levels and antioxidant status. Reduced tissue changes caused by As (shrinkage of seminiferous tubules, spermatogenesis disruption, and empty lumen).	Ogunlade et al., 2020 [82]