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. 2024 Feb 2;13(2):192. doi: 10.3390/antiox13020192

Table 1.

Concept, advantages, and drawbacks of innovative techniques for sustainable recovery of bioactive phytochemicals from plants.

Extraction Technique Concept Advantages (vs. Conventional Methods) Drawbacks Reference
Ultrasound-assisted extraction
(UAE)
  • -

    Sound wave between 20 kHz and 100 MHz

  • -

    Promote cavitation effects and cell wall disruption

  • -

    Release of intracellular phenolic compounds
  • -

    Reduced extraction time

  • -

    Low solvent use

  • -

    Increased mass transfer

  • -

    Temperature control

  • -

    Preservation of heat-sensitive compounds

  • -

    Ecological and inexpensive
  • -

    Invasive process for the operator

  • -

    Intensive labor and attention

  • -

    Limited extraction efficiency

  • -

    Filtration required

  • -

    Difficult to scale-up

 [27,28]
Microwave-assisted extraction
(MAE)
  • -

    Electromagnetic radiation (frequencies 300 MHz to 300 GHz)

  • -

    Diffusion of solvent into the biomass through cell pores and rupture of membranes

  • -

    Release of intracellular phenolic compounds
  • -

    Rapid, selective, and uniform heating

  • -

    Low organic solvent use

  • -

    High effectiveness

  • -

    Accelerated extraction process

  • -

    Wide range of applications
  • -

    Chemical modifications of phenolic compounds by high temperature and pressure applications

  • -

    Clean-up mandatory

  • -

    Filtration required

  • -

    Relatively expensive technique

 [29,30]
Pulsed electric field
(PEF)
  • -

    Request pulses from 100–300 V/cm to 20–80 kV/cm

  • -

    Stimulation of electroporation phenomenon

  • -

    Release of intracellular phenolic compounds
  • -

    Non-thermal technology

  • -

    Increase cell permeability

  • -

    Preservation of heat-sensitive compounds

  • -

    Selective extraction

  • -

    Low organic solvent use

  • -

    Accelerated extraction process

  • -

    Inactivation of microorganisms
  • -

    Cell membranes can be reversible or irreversible during the electroporation mechanism

  • -

    High equipment cost

  • -

    Requires a significant amount of electrical energy

  • -

    Limited application range (matrix dependent)

 [4,31,32,33]
Ohmic heating
(OH)
  • -

    Non-pulsed electrotechnology

  • -

    Conversion of electric fields into thermal energy

  • -

    Applied voltage 400 and 4000 V (electric field from 0.001 to 1 kV/cm)

  • -

    Induce the electroporation of the plant cell walls and membranes

  • -

    Release of intracellular phenolic compounds
  • -

    Fast and uniform heating

  • -

    Less energy consumption

  • -

    Low organic solvents use

  • -

    Decrease waste generation

  • -

    Selective extraction

  • -

    Accelerated extraction process

  • -

    Inactivation of microorganisms
  • -

    Thermal impact on phenolic compounds

  • -

    Limited by the viscosity and electrical conductivity of solvents and plant biomass

  • -

    Reversible or irreversible electroporation mechanism

  • -

    Requires more studies for scale-up

 [4]
High-voltage electrical discharges
(HVED)
  • -

    Application of electrohydraulic discharge (20–80 kV/cm)

  • -

    Generation of bubbles, UV radiations, and active radicals

  • -

    Cell tissue fragmentation and destruction

  • -

    Improve the mass transfer of phenolics for the solvent
  • -

    Accelerated extraction process

  • -

    Low organic solvent use

  • -

    Non-thermal technology

  • -

    Inactivation of microorganisms
  • -

    Oxidation process and free radicals’ formation (can react with phenolic compounds)

  • -

    Low selectivity

 [34,35]
Pressurized liquid extraction
(PLE)
  • -

    Liquid solvents at temperature/pressure above the atmospheric boiling point and below the critical point

  • -

    Decrease solvent viscosity

  • -

    Improve dissolution kinetics

  • -

    Disruption of biomass structure

  • -

    Solubilization of phenolic compounds
  • -

    Accelerated extraction process

  • -

    Low organic solvent use

  • -

    Versatility
  • -

    Expensive equipment

  • -

    Clean-up required

  • -

    Possible degradation of thermolabile phenolic compounds

 [35,36]
Supercritical fluid extraction
(SFE)
  • -

    Transformation of gas (CO2) into a supercritical fluid by application of temperature and pressure

  • -

    Co-solvent (e.g., ethanol) used for phenolic compounds extraction
  • -

    Accelerated extraction process

  • -

    Selective extraction (non-polar, mid-polar, or polar compounds)

  • -

    No residual solvents

  • -

    Non-toxicity, non-flammability of CO2
  • -

    Expensive technique

  • -

    Matrix dependent

  • -

    High energy consumption

  • -

    Equipment complexity

 [36,37]
Enzyme-assisted extraction
(EAE)
  • -

    Enzymatic catalysis by specific and selective reactions

  • -

    Enzymes to break down cell walls and facilitate the release of target compounds

  • -

    Enzymes play a key role in hydrolyzing structural components
  • -

    High extraction efficiency

  • -

    No organic solvents use
  • -

    Expensive enzyme costs

  • -

    Specific environmental factors (temperature, pH, etc.)

  • -

    Time-consuming

 [36,38]