TABLE 3.
Intervention studies investigating the effects of fermented food consumption on human health.
| Diet and fermented food matrix | Daily quantity of fermented food | Study design | Control group | Participants | Participant characteristics | Length of intervention | Wash out | Gut microbiome analysis method | Variation in gut microbiome detected | Health outcome targeted | Health outcome achieved | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High‐fermented foods diet (cottage cheese, kefir, kombucha, vegetable brine drinks, vegetables, yogurt, other foods and drinks) | 6 servings | Randomised, prospective | High‐fibre diet (fruits, grains, legumes, nuts/seeds, vegetables, meat, dairy and other) | 36 | Male (30.56%), adults (52 ± 11 years), normal‐weight | 17 weeks | No | 16S rRNA and Shotgun |
↑ Ruminococcaceae and Streptococcaceae ↓ Lachnospira |
Inflammation | Yes | Wastyk et al. (2021) |
| Fermented milk | 80 g | Cross‐over trial | No intervention | 35 | Male (60.00%), children (7–10 years), normal‐weight and overweight | 4 weeks | Yes | 16S rRNA | ↑ Bacteroides ovatus, Lachnospira and Ruminococcus | Obesity | No | Joseph et al. (2020) |
| Fermented milk | 100 g | Before/after trial | Control‐based before/after | 21 | Male (33.33%), adults (18–25 years), normal‐weight | 2 weeks | Yes | 16S rRNA | None | None | ‐ | Khine et al. (2019) |
| Fermented milk | 100/300 g | Randomised, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial | Acidified milk | 96 | Male (45.83%), adults (18–55 years), normal‐weight | 4 weeks | Yes | 16S rRNA and Shotgun | None | None | ‐ | Alvarez et al. (2020) |
| Fermented milk | 110 g | Randomised, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial | Pasteurised acidified milk | 25 | Male (36.00%), adults (treated, 36.9 ± 6.9 years; control, 36.5 ± 6.1 years), normal‐weight | 10 weeks | No | 16S rRNA |
↑ Collinsella, Lactobacillus, Blautia and Ruminococcus ↓ Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, Prevotella and Oscillospira |
Cedar pollinosis | Yes | Harata et al. (2017) |
| Fermented milk | 250 g | Randomised, double‐blind, parallel and controlled trial | Non‐fermented milk product | 106 | Male (35.80%), adults (18–65 years), normal‐weight | 2 weeks | Yes | 16S rRNA | None | Irritable bowel syndrome | No | Le Nevé et al. (2019) |
| Fermented milk | 250 g | Randomised, double‐blind, parallel and placebo‐controlled trial | Acidified milk | 28 | Male (0%), adults (20–69 years), weight not reported | 4 weeks | Yes | Shotgun |
↑ Clostridiales ↓ Bilophila wadsworthia |
Irritable bowel syndrome | Yes | Veiga et al., 2014 |
| Fermented milk | 180 g | Double‐blind, randomise, placebo‐controlled, multicentric trial | Heat‐treated fermented milk | 30 | Gender not reported, adults (18–65 years), weight not reported | 4 weeks | Yes | 16S rRNA and qPCR | ↑ Streptococcus thermophilus (short term, both treatment and control) | Irritable bowel syndrome | No | Bogovič Matijašić et al. (2016) |
| Fermented milk | 140 g | Before/after trial | Control‐based before/after | 6 | Male (0%), adults (20–24 years), normal‐weight | 3 weeks | Yes | 16S rRNA |
↑ Bacteroidaceae and Prevotellaceae ↓ Ruminococcaceae and Lachnospiraceae |
None | ‐ | Unno et al. (2015) |
| Fermented milk | 600 mL | Randomised, double‐blind and placebo‐controlled trial | Placebo | 18 | Male (100%), adults (21.6 ± 0.8 years), normal‐weight | 2 days | No | Not detected | ‐ | Muscle soreness | Yes | Iwasa et al. (2013) |
| Fermented milk | 125 g | Randomised, controlled, parallel trial | Non‐fermented milk and no intervention | 36 | Male (0%), adults (18–55 years), normal‐weight | 4 weeks | No | 16S rRNA | None | Brain intrinsic activity or emotional attention | Yes | Tillisch et al. (2013) |
| Fermented milk | 80 mL | Randomised, placebo‐controlled, double‐blind trial | Placebo | 72 | Male (26.39%), (85 years), normal‐weight | 6 months | No | qPCR |
↑ Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus ↓ Clostridium difficile, C. perfringens, Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas |
Infection control, bowel movement normalcy | Yes | Nagata et al. (2016) |
| Yogurt | 125 g | Cross‐over trial, double blind | Pasteurised yogurt | 79 | Male (40.51%), adults (mean 23.6 years), normal‐weight | 2 weeks | Yes | DGGE and qPCR |
LAB and C. perfringens ↓ Bacteroides |
None | ‐ | García‐Albiach et al. (2008) |
| Yogurt | 500 g | Before/after trial | Control‐based before/after | 20 | Male (20.00%), adults (30 ± 5 years), normal‐weight | 2 weeks | Yes | DGGE and qPCR |
↑ LAB and Clostridium perfringens ↓ Bacteroides, Prevotella, Porphyromonas |
None | ‐ | Vázquez et al. (2013) |
| Yogurt | 220 g | Randomised, controlled trial | Milk | 92 | Male (0%), adults (milk, 51.2 ± 10.2 years; yogurt, 48.9 ± 10.5 years), obese | 24 weeks | Yes | 16S rRNA |
↑ Phascolarctobacterium ↓ Bacillaeota, Clostridiales, Blautia, Eubacterium ventriosum, Erysipelotrichaceae, Ruminococcus, Pseudobutyrivibrio, Dialister |
Metabolic syndrome | Yes | Chen et al. (2019) |
| Yogurt | 400 g | Randomised, double‐blind, cross‐over trial | Acidified milk | 14 | Male (100%), adults (18–40 years), normal‐weight | 2 weeks | Yes | 16S rRNA | None | Postprandial inflammation | No | Burton et al. (2017) |
| Yogurt | 250 g | Before/after trial | Control‐based before/after | 135 | Male (31.11%), adults (18–40 years), normal‐weight | 30 days | No | 16S rRNA | ↑ Bifidobacterium, Streptococcus, Actinobacteraeota and Erysipelotrichaceae | None | ‐ | Volokh et al. (2019) |
| Yogurt | 250 g | Open label trial, longitudinal over pregnancy and after delivery | No intervention | 56 | Male (0%), adults (18–40 years), pregnant | 88 ± 31 days | No | 16S rRNA |
Mother's microbiota: no effects Newborns: ↑ Bifidobacterium ↓ Enterobacteriaceae |
Undernourishment |
Mother's microbiota: no Newborn faeces: yes |
Bisanz et al. (2015) |
| Kefir | 180 mL | Randomised, parallel and controlled trial | Milk | 22 | Male (27.27%), adults (18–65 years), normal‐weight and overweight | 12 weeks | No | 16S rRNA | ↑ Actinobacteria | Metabolic syndrome | Yes | Bellikci‐Koyu et al. (2019) |
| Kefir | 500 mL | Non‐randomised, uncontrolled intervention study | None | 20 | Male (40%), adults (27–78 years), normal‐weight | 4 weeks | No | Not detected | ‐ | Functional constipation | Yes | Turan et al. (2015) |
| Kefir | 500 mL | Randomised controlled trial, double‐blind | Milk | 82 | Male (56.10%), children and adults (12–46 years), normal‐weight | 2 weeks | No | Not detected | ‐ | Dyspepsia and H. pylori infection | Yes | Bekar et al. (2011) |
| Kefir | 508 mL (plain kefir); 519 g (raspberry‐flavoured kefir) | Randomised control trial, cross‐over | Low‐fat cow milk; plain yogurt; flavoured yogurt | 15 | Male (53.33%), adults (20–34 years), normal‐weight | 5 days | No | Not detected | ‐ | Lactose malabsorption | Yes | Hertzler and Clancy (2003) |
| Kefir | 75–150 mL | Randomised control trial, double‐blind | Heat‐treated kefir | 125 | Male (51.20%), children (1–5 years), normal‐weight | 2 weeks | No | Not detected | ‐ | Antibiotic‐associated diarrhoea | No | Merenstein et al. (2009) |
| Kefir | 400 mL | Randomised control trial | No intervention | 45 | Male (51.11%), adults (19–68 years), normal‐weight | 4 weeks | No | qPCR | None | Irritable bowel disease | Yes | Yilmaz et al. (2020) |
| Kefir | 1600 mg (supplemented with 1500 mg of CaCO3) | Randomised, parallel, controlled, double‐blind trial | Unfermented raw milk | 40 | Male (43.80%), adults (control group, 67.94 ± 8.37 years; kefir group 64.08 ± 14.51 years), normal‐weight | 6 months | No | Not detected | ‐ | Osteoporosis | Yes | Tu et al. (2015) |
| Parmesan | 45 g | Before/after trial | Parmesan with milk | 20 | ‐ | 2 weeks | Yes | 16S rRNA and Shotgun | None | None | ‐ | Milani et al. (2019) |
| Cured meats and cheeses | Ad libitum | Cross‐over trial | Plant‐based diet | 20 | Male (60%), adults (21–33 years), normal‐weight | 15 days | Yes | 16S rRNA and ITS |
↑ Alistipes, Bilophila and Bacteroides ↓ Roseburia, Eubacterium rectale and Ruminococcus bromii |
None | ‐ | David et al. (2014) |
| Chungkookjang (Korean fermented soy product) | 35 g | Randomised, placebo‐controlled, cross‐over trial | Placebo pills | 120 | Male (60%), adults (19–29 years), normal‐weight | 12 weeks | Yes | Not detected | ‐ | Obesity | Yes | Byun et al. (2016) |
| Fermented soy product supplemented with isoflavones | 200 mL | Randomised, placebo‐controlled, double‐blind trial | Unfermented soy product | 49 | Male (100%), adults (37–57 years), normal‐weight | 42 days | No | Not detected | ‐ | Cardiometabolic disease | Yes | Cardoso Umbelino Cavallini et al. (2016) |
| Kochujang (Korean fermented sauce) | 34.5 g | Randomised, placebo‐controlled, double‐blind trial | Placebo pills | 30 | Male (43.33%), adults (19–55 years), normal‐weight | 12 weeks | No | Not detected | ‐ | Hyperlipidemia | Yes | Lim et al. (2015) |
| Kimchi | 180 g | Randomised, parallel and controlled trial | Unfermented kimchi | 23 | Male (0%), adults (30–60 years), obese | 8 weeks | No | 16S rRNA |
↑ Prevotella and Bacteroides ↓ Blautia |
Metabolic syndrome | Yes | Han et al. (2015) |
| Kimchi | 300 g | Randomised, controlled, cross‐over trial | Unfermented kimchi | 21 | Male (33.3%), adults (31–65 years), normal‐weight and overweight | 8 weeks | Yes | Not detected | ‐ | Prediabetes | Yes | An et al. (2013) |
| Kimchi | 210 g | Randomised, parallel and controlled trial | Low kimchi consumption (15 g/day) | 100 | Male (50%), adults (low‐intake group, 22.5 ± 3.1 years; high‐intake group 23.0 ± 2.8 years), normal‐weight | 1 week | No | Not detected | ‐ | Cardiometabolic disease | Yes | Choi et al. (2013) |
| Kimchi | 100 g | Randomised, open‐labelled, prospective, and controlled trial | No intervention | 43 | Gender not reported, adults (over 20 years), normal‐weight | 4 weeks | Yes | Not detected | ‐ | Immune system | No | Lee et al. (2014) |
| Kimchi | 210 g | Randomised, parallel and controlled trial | Functional kimchi (210 g/day) | 28 | Male (64.29%), adults (standard kimchi, 22.6 ± 2.2 years functional kimchi, 24.1 ± 4.8 years), normal‐weight | 4 weeks | No | 16S rRNA |
Kimchi: ↑ Bacteroidaeota and Actinobacteraeota ↓ Bacillaeota, Alphaproteobacteraeota and Tenericutes. Bifidobacterium adolescentis Functional kimchi: ↑ Bacteroidaeota and Alphaproteobacteraeota. Bifidobacterium adolescentis ↓ Bacillaeota and Actinobacteraeota |
Metabolic syndrome and irritable bowel syndrome | Yes | Kim and Park (2018) |
| Psychobiotic diet (high in prebiotic fibres, legumes and FFs) | 6–8 servings/day (prebiotic fibres); 5–8 servings/day (grains); 3–4 servings/week (legumes), 2–3 servings/day (FFs) | Single‐blind, randomised, controlled trial | No intervention | 45 | Male (37.78%), adults (18–59 years), normal‐weight | 4 weeks | No | Shotgun | None | Perceived stress | Yes | Berding et al. (2023) |
| Sauerkraut (unpasteurised and containing LAB) | 75 g | Randomised, double‐blind controlled trial | Pasteurised sauerkraut | 58 | Male (62.50%), adults (21–59 years), normal‐weight | 6 weeks | No | 16S rRNA | ↑ Clostridiales, Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae Faecalibacterium, Eubacterium and Bacteroides | Irritable bowel syndrome | Yes | Nielsen et al. (2018) |
| Sourdough | 145 g | Randomised cross‐over trial | White wheat bread | 20 | Male (45%), adults (18–70 years), normal‐weight | 1 week | Yes | 16S rRNA and Shotgun | White wheat bread: ↑ Eubacterium ventriosum and Anaerostipes spp. | Cardiometabolic disease | ‐ | Korem et al. (2017) |
| Sourdough | 2 sourdough croissants | Randomised, double‐blind, cross‐over, controlled trial | Traditional yeast croissants | 17 | Male (48%), adults (18–40 years), normal‐weight | Single study day | Yes | Not detected | ‐ | Gastric emptying and gastrointestinal fermentation symptoms | Yes | Polese et al. (2018) |
| Sourdough | 6–10 slices | Randomised cross‐over trial | Wheat bread enriched with fermented rye bran | 7 | Male (57.14%), adults (38–61 years), normal‐weight | 4 weeks | No | Not detected | ‐ | Gastrointestinal symptoms | Yes | Raninen et al. (2017) |
| Sourdough | 7–8 slices | Randomised, double‐blinded, cross‐over trial | Traditional sourdough rye bread | 87 | Male (8.7%), adults (21–64 years), normal‐weight | 4 weeks | Yes | Not detected | ‐ | Irritable bowel syndrome | Yes | Laatikainen et al. (2016) |
| Sourdough | 6 slices | Randomised controlled trial, double‐blinded | Yeast‐fermented wheat bread | 26 | Male (4%), adults (21–64 years), normal‐weight | 7 days | No | Not detected | ‐ | Irritable bowel syndrome | No | Laatikainen et al. (2017) |
| Sourdough | 200 g | Non‐randomise, uncontrolled trial | None | 8 | Gender not reported, children (8–17 years), normal‐weight | 60 days | No | Not detected | ‐ | Coeliac disease | Yes | Di Cagno et al. (2010) |
| Sourdough | 200 g | Randomised controlled trial | Traditional wheat bread | 20 | Male (30%), children and adults (12–24 years), normal‐weight | 3 days | No | Not detected | ‐ | Coeliac disease | Yes | Mandile et al. (2017) |