Table 3.

Endpoints for tissue-engineered whole organs

Organ	Simplest cells	Minimal function	Advanced endpoints
Heart	Cardiocytes	Contractility	Pumping against afterload, drug responsivity, conduction systems, pacemaker activity, working valves
Liver	Hepatocytes	Albumin, urea production	Drug metabolism, metabolic regulation, coagulation factor synthesis
Kidney	Renal medulla cells	Urine production	Blood filtration, renin angiotensin system, blood pressure maintenance
Lung	Alveolar type 2 cells	O2 exchange	Respiration
Pancreas	Islet a,p-cells	Insulin/glucagon secretion	Pancreatic digestive enzymes, endocrine hormone production