Table 1.

Characteristics of the included studies on the bidirectionality of sleep and behavior in human subjects, ordered by study design.

Study Type	Authors	Age at a last follow-up (childhood, adolescence, adulthood)	Country and Sample	Sample Characteristics1	Sleep Measures	Externalizing Behavior Measures	Covariates
LONGITUDINAL	S1: Conway et al. (2017) 50	Childhood	USA NICHD-SECCYD2 Toddler population with sleep and behavior problems	n = 1001 Age 24–36 months 48.85% female Two waves of data collection	Mother-reported CBCL3	Mother-reported CBCL (withdrawn, aggressive, and destructive behaviors subscales)	Age, gender, ethnicity, maternal years of education, age, and depressive symptoms, family income, number of children at home
	S2: Steinsbekk & Wichstrøm (2015) 2	Childhood	Norway Child population who regularly attended community health check-ups	Baseline (2007/2008): n = 995 Age 4 years Mean age=4.4 50.9% female Follow-up (2009/2010): n = 775 Age 6 years Mean age=6.7 49.9% female Two waves of data collection	Parent-reported PAPA4 (investigating sleep disorders)	DSM-IV5 symptom counts obtained with the use of PAPA interview completed by parents	Age, gender, sleep disorders at age of 4 years, initial level of psychiatric symptoms, parental gender, occupation, marital status, and cohabitation
	S3: Williams et al. (2017) 9	Childhood	Australia Growing Up in Australia, the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) Child community sample	n = 4109 Age 0–9 years 49% female Five waves of data collection	Four mother-reported items from the Infant Sleep Study	Four mother-reported items from The Infant Sleep Study	Age, gender, ethnicity, number of siblings, language spoken at home, parents’ age, parents’ education, parents’ presence at home
	S4: Kouros & El-Sheikh (2015) 51	Childhood	USA Child Regulation Study Child community sample	n = 142 Mean age=10.69 57% female Two waves of data collection	Octagonal Basic Motionloggers Actigraphy	Mother-reported five-point semantic differential scale Parent-reported Personality Inventory for Children	Age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, day of the week (workday vs weekend), puberty, parental employment, BMI6
	S5: Mulraney et al. (2016) 52	Childhood	Australia Children with ADHD7 selected from pediatric clinics	n = 270 Age 5–13 years Mean age=10.1 14.1% female Three waves of data collection	Parent-reported CSHQ8	Parent-reported SDQ9	Age, gender, medication for ADHD, ASD10, ADHD subtype, primary caregiver’s age, primary caregiver’s education
	S6: Liu et al. (2021) 53	Childhood	China China Jintan Cohort Study Child community sample	Baseline (2004): n = 1209 Mean age=6.18 45.7% female Follow-up (2009): n = 775 Mean age= 11.5 48% female Two waves of data collection	Parent-reported CBCL Child-reported YSR11	Parent-reported CBCL Teacher-reported TRF12 Child-reported YSR	Age, gender, parents’ education, attended school
	S7: Quach et al. (2018) 54	Adolescence	Australia Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) Child/early adolescent community sample	Baseline (2004): n = 4983 Age 4–5 years Mean age=4.7 Follow-up (2012): n = 3956 Age 12–13 years 49% female Five waves of data collection	Parent-reported five items list (4 “yes/no” items, 1 dichotomized item assessing the extent of sleeping problems)	Parent-reported SDQ including hyperactivity/inattention and conduct problems subscales	Age, gender, ethnicity, number of siblings, language spoken at home, parents’ age, parents’ education, parents’ presence at home
	S8: Williamson et al. (2021) 55	Adolescence	Australia Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) Child/early adolescent community sample	Baseline (2004): n = 4983 Age 4–5 years Follow-up (2012): n = 3682 Age 12–13 years 49% female Five waves of data collection	Parent-reported five items list (4 “yes/no” items, 1 dichotomized item assessing the extent of sleeping problems)	Parent-reported SDQ including hyperactivity/inattention and conduct problems subscales	Age, gender, ethnicity, number of siblings, language spoken at home, parents’ age, parents’ education, parents’ presence at home
	S9: Kelly & El-Sheikh (2014) 56	Adolescence	USA Child Regulation Study Child community sample	Baseline (2003–2004): n = 176 Mean age=8.68 55.7% female Follow-up (2009): n = 113 Mean age= 13.6 Three waves of data collection	Child-reported Sleep Habits Survey The 10-item Sleep–Wake Problems scale Actigraphy	Parent-reported Personality Inventory for Children (Externalizing scale)	Age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, BMI, puberty, season of the year, daylight hours at the time of measurement
	S10: Bauducco et al. (2019) 57	Adolescence	Sweden Adolescent community sample	Baseline (2014): n = 2767 Age 12–15 years Mean age=13.7 47.6% female Follow-up (2016): n = 1982 Three waves of data collection	Self-reported bed time questions from the School Sleep Habits Survey Child-reported ISI13	UPSS14 impulsive behavior scale (the urgency subscale)	Age, gender
	S11: Pieters et al. (2015) 58	Adolescence	Netherlands Adolescent community sample	n = 555 Age 11–16 years Mean age=13.96 52.25% female Two waves of data collection	Child-reported ASWS15 Child-reported ASHS16	Child-reported SDQ	Age, gender, ethnicity, substance use, puberty, education
	S12: Wang et al. (2016) 59	Adolescence	Australia Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort (Raine) Study Child/early adolescent community sample	Baseline (1989): n = 2868 Assessed at birth 49.3% female Follow-up (2003): n = 1774 Age 14 Effective sample size: n = 1993 48.6% female Four waves of data collection	Parent-reported CBCL	Parent-reported CBCL Child-reported YSR	Age, gender, different developmental trajectories of sleep problems
	S13: Gregory & O’Connor (2002) 60	Adolescence	USA Colorado Adoption Project Children population in adoptive and non-adoptive families	n = 490 Age 4–15 years 46.3% female Two waves of data collection	Parent-reported CBCL	Parent-reported CBCL	Age, gender, adoptive status
	S14: Shanahan et al. (2014) 61	Adolescence	USA The Great Smoky Mountains Study Children population with certain scores on the CBCL externalizing scale	n = 1420 Age 9–16 years Four waves of data collection	Parent-reported and children-reported Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment	Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment	Age, gender, puberty, ethnicity, comorbidities
	S15: Kortesoja et al. (2020) 62	Adolescence	Finland Adolescent community sample	Baseline (2011): n = 8834 Mean age=13 51.1% female Follow-up (2016): n = 3712 Mean age= 17 50.2% female Three waves of data collection	Self-reported sleep duration (2 questions about sleep and wake-up times) Self-reported sleep problems (1 question on difficulties falling asleep/waking up at night)	Self-reported SDQ	Age, gender, mothers’ education (socioeconomic status)
	S16: Vermeulen et al. (2021) 63	Adulthood	Netherlands Adolescent twin population	n = 12,803 2148 MZ pairs 3358 DZ pairs Age 13–20 years 58% female Two waves of data collection	Self-reported 3-point scale gaging habitual sleep duration Child-reported YSR	Child-reported YSR (subscales for externalizing behaviors)	Age, gender, family clustering
	S17: Wang et al. (2021) 64	Adolescents	China Adolescent population after experiencing an earthquake	Baseline (2009): n = 1275 Mean age=15.96 56.2% female Follow-up (2010): n = 927 Mean age= 16.92 57.2% female Two waves of data collection	Self-reported PSQI17	Self-reported SDQ	Age, gender, earthquake exposure
	S18: Kelly et al., (2022) 65	Adolescents	USA Family Stress and Youth Development Study Adolescent community sample	Baseline (2012): n = 246 Mean age=15.79 53% female Follow-up (2015): n = 215 Mean age= 17.7 55% female Three waves of data collection	Actigraphy Self-reported School Sleep Habits Survey	Parent-reported Personality Inventory for Children	Age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status
CROSS-SECTIONAL	S19: Van Dyk et al. (2016) 66	Childhood	USA Children with emotional and behavioral problems receiving outpatient treatment	n = 25 Age 6–11 years Mean age=8.72 36% female	Child-reported PDSS18 Parent-reported CSHQ Actigraph wrist watches supplemented by Actisleep software Parent-reported total daily sleep Child-reported sleep quality on a five-point Likert-type scale	Child-reported BASC-2119 Parent-reported CBCL Parent-reported BPM20	Age, gender, ethnicity, psychotropic medication
	S20: Yaugher & Alexander (2015)67	Adulthood	USA Undergraduates	n = 386 Age 18–27 years Mean age=18.59 58% female	Self-reported PSQI Accelerometer	Self-reported BIS-1121 Self-reported TriPM22 Self-reported PAI23	Age, gender, ethnicity, sleep medication

¹Baseline and final follow-up included in the study.

²National Institute of Child Health and Development-Study of Early Childcare and Youth Development.

³Child Behavior Checklist.

⁴Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment.

⁵Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition.

⁶Body Mass Index.

⁷Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

⁸Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire.

⁹Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

¹⁰Autism Spectrum Disorder.

¹¹Youth Self-Report.

¹²Teacher’s Report Form.

¹³Insomnia Severity Index.

¹⁴Urgency, Premeditation, Perseverance, Sensation seeking.

¹⁵Adolescent Sleep-Wake Scale.

¹⁶Adolescent Sleep Hygiene Scale.

¹⁷Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index.

¹⁸Pediatric Daytime Sleepiness Scale.

¹⁹Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition.

²⁰Brief Problems Monitor.

²¹Barratt Impulsiveness Scale.

²²Triarchic Psychopathy Measure.

²³Personality Assessment Inventory.