Table 2.

Bone graft materials of reconstruction for bone tuberculosis.

Material Type	Source	Properties	Clinical Use	Advantages	Disadvantages	References No.
Autografts	Patient’s own bone	Osteogenic, osteoinductive, osteoconductive, biocompatible	Preferred for its biological properties	Best integration and growth potential	Limited availability, donor site complications	[76]
Allografts	Donor human bone	Various forms, may be processed	Useful when autograft quantity is insufficient	Reduced donor site morbidity	Risk of disease transmission, immune response	[76]
Xenografts	Bone from another species	Processed for biocompatibility	Alternative when human bone is not preferred	No risk of disease transmission from human	Cross-species compatibility issues	[77]
Bone Graft Substitutes	Synthetic or naturally derived	Includes ceramics, cements, glass	Fill bone defects and provide a scaffold	Variety of options and ease of use	Lack of osteogenic, osteoinductive, osteoconductive, and biocompatible properties	[76]
Vascularized Bone Grafts	Bone with its own blood supply	Improved healing in avascular areas	Used in challenging defects	Superior in areas with poor blood supply	Technically demanding, donor site morbidity	[78]
Custom 3D-Printed Implants	Based on patient-specific imaging	Tailor-made, biocompatible	Perfect fit for defect area	Custom-fit, reduces adaptation issues	High-cost, complex pre-surgical planning	[79]
Titanium Mesh	Metallic scaffolds	Support and allows bone growth	Spinal fusion surgeries	Immediate structural support	Biological incompatibility, subsidence, stress shielding, and radiopacity	[80,81]
Polymers	Biodegradable or non-biodegradable	Scaffolds for bone regeneration	Gradual bone regeneration	Versatility and controlled degradation	May induce inflammatory response	[82]
Metal Alloys	Stainless steel, cobalt-chromium, etc.	Used for structural support	Load-bearing area repair	High strength and fatigue resistance	Stress shielding, toxic ion release, secondary surgery, and imaging artifacts	[83]