Table 3.

The summary of nanocarriers designed for bone tuberculosis.

Author/ Year	Types of Delivery System	Drug Loaded	Animal Model	Designed Route of Administration	Target Area	Release Time	Effect	Limitation	References No.
Zhu et al., 2015	Mesoporous Silica NPs	IHN/RIF	New Zealand rabbits	Implantation into rabbit femoral bone defects	Bone tuberculosis foci	84 days	Direct drug delivery to bone TB sites promotes bone growth and limits side effects on the liver and kidneys	Faces challenges with biodegradability and stability, including potential pore blockage and surface modifier degradation	[30]
Zhu et al., 2011	Mesoporous Silica NPs	IHN/RIF	New Zealand rabbits	Implantation into rabbit femoral bone defects	Bone tuberculosis foci	30 days	Ensuring prolonged drug efficacy while minimizing systemic side effects	Faces challenges with biodegradability and stability, including potential pore blockage and surface modifier degradation	[29]
Yahia et al., 2023	Mesoporous Silica NPs	LVX/RIF	Wistar rats	Subcutaneous implantable composite scaffold	Bone tuberculosis foci	60 days	Lowers drug IC50, aiding in spinal repair and regeneration, with minimal biological side effects	Similar biodegradability and clearance issues; may encounter pore clogging and surface alteration	[89]
Yahia et al., 2023	Mesoporous Silica NPs	LVX/RIF	Wistar rats	Subcutaneous implantable composite scaffold	Bone tuberculosis foci	30 days/32 days	Delivers TB medication directly to infection sites for sustained effect, reducing systemic drug dependency	Similar biodegradability and clearance issues; may encounter pore clogging and surface alteration	[32]
Liang et al., 2023	Tetracycline-modified NPs	RPT	Kunming mice	Vein injection	Bone tuberculosis foci	60 h	Increases rifapentine’s efficacy in osteoarticular TB, minimizing dosage and treatment frequency	May promote the development of resistance in bacteria	[28]
Huang et al., 2015	Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) NPs	IHN	New Zealand rabbits	Implantation into rabbit radius bone defects	Bone tuberculosis foci	100 days	Achieves long-term, localized drug release and facilitates bone healing	Water-soluble drugs face integration challenges; degradation byproducts may affect drug release and tissue health	[90]
Ma et al., 2021	Bovine serum albumin NPs	IHN/RIF	New Zealand rabbits	Vein injection	Bone tuberculosis foci through systemic circulation	42 days	Continuous drug release at the infection site enhances treatment and lowers adverse reactions	Risks immunogenic reactions; variable composition may affect consistency and safety	[27]
Liu et al., 2019	Liposome NPs	DINH	New Zealand rabbits	Intra-articular injection	Bone tuberculosis foci	72 h	Provides stable drug levels at the infection site, potentially decreasing dosing frequency and reducing side effects	Susceptible to oxidation and hydrolysis; may have limitations in carrying hydrophobic drugs	[85]
Chen et al., 2019	Chitosan/carbon nanotubes NPs	INH	Guinea pigs	Vein injection	Secondary wound of bone tuberculosis through systemic circulation	48 h	Supports ulcer healing and reduces bacterial load and isoniazid-induced toxicity	Toxicity and immunogenicity are concerns; non-biodegradability poses environmental risks	[91]
Fang et al., 2022	Nanoscale mineralized collagen	INH	Kunming mice	Subcutaneous implantable composite scaffold	Bone tuberculosis foci	84 days	Delivers isoniazid effectively to bone, with improved biodegradability and compatibility	Collagen’s variability can lead to inconsistent properties and potential immunogenicity	[92]
Xie et al., 2021	Chitosan NPs	INH	New Zealand rabbits	Implantation into rabbit femoral bone defects	Bone tuberculosis foci	28 days	Inhibits TB bacteria growth and adhesion, promoting bone integration and health	Risk of immunogenicity and allergic reactions; may aggregate in biological fluids	[93]

Abbreviations: NPs, nanoparticles; INH, isoniazid; RIF, rifampicin; LVX, levofloxacin; DINH, N′-Dodecanoylisonicotinohydrazide; RPT, Rifapentine.