Table 6.
Bio-based polymers, materials, and electrospinning parameters for the fabrication of fibers with waterproof properties along with their structure and target application.
| Matrix | Solvent | Additional Agent | Optimum Process Conditions | Structure | Waterproof Efficacy | Target Application | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PU | N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) | 12% w/w PU, 13 kV voltage, 10 cm tip-to-collector distance | Fibers with an average diameter of 1.45 μm—PU web/fabric | Hydrostatic pressure (3.58 × 103 Pa) | Protective and specialty textiles | [76] | |
| PU | THF:N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) (60:40 v/v) | 13% w/w PU, 4 h electrospinning, 14 kV voltage, 0.6 mL/h feed rate, 170 mm tip-to-collector distance | Nanofiber layers with an average fiber diameter of 447 nm and thickness of 0.023 mm | Contact angle (141.882°), Acidic water permeation (>1200 s) | Various applications (sportswear, protective clothing, orthopedic dressing etc.) | [79] | |
| PU | DMF:THF (3:2 v/v) | 12% w/w PU, 12 kV voltage, 0.8 mL/h feed rate, 13 cm tip-to-collector distance, 300 rpm collector speed | Nanofiber webs with fibers’ average diameter of 890 nm | Resistance to water penetration (4.2 × 103 Pa) | Army combat, sports uniforms | [77] | |
| PU | THF:N,N-imethylformamide (DMF) (60:40 v/v), | 13 wt%/v PU, 13 kV voltage, 130 mm nozzle-to-collector distance, rotational speed of 150 rpm, traverse speed of 400 mm/min, 12 h duration | Nanofibrous web with a thickness of 280.0 μm and average fiber diameter of 480 nm | Hydrostatic pressure (7.35 × 103 Pa) | Protective clothing | [82] | |
| PU | PCL diol, 4,40-Diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI), 1,4-butanediol (BD) | 4 wt% PU, 6.5 kV voltage, 1.0 mL/h feed rate, 5–20 cm tip-to-collector distance | Shape memory PU (SMPU) web with a thickness of 40 μm | Hydrostatic pressure (5.39 × 103 Pa) | Protective and thermally intelligent clothing material | [81] | |
| PU | N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) | 10 wt% PU, 25 kV voltage, 0.5 mL/h feed rate, 15 cm tip-to-collector distance, 680 rpm rotating speed | Nanofibrous webs with a thickness of 60 μm and an average fiber diameter of 200 nm | Water pressure resistance (15.2 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (130°) | Various applications | [73] | |
| PU | N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) | 13 wt% PU, 10 kV voltage, 0.2 mL/h feed rate, 11 cm tip-to-collector distance | Nanofiber web 3-layer fabric system (PU, polyester fabric, nylon tricot) with a thickness of 0.46 mm | Hydrostatic pressure (~68.6 × 103 Pa) | Waterproof materials | [90] | |
| PU, FPU | N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) | 20 wt% PU, 2 wt% FPU, 35 kV voltage, 4 mL/h feed rate, 25 cm tip-to-collector distance | Hydrophibicfibrous membranes (thickness of 125 μm) and flat films (thickness of 15 ± 1 µm) | Hydrostatic pressure (86 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (149°) | Various applications (e.g., protective clothing) | [91] | |
| PU, FPU | DMF:THF (1:1 w/w), | Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) | 1.5 wt% PU/FPU, 0.75 wt% CNTs, 5 kV voltage, 5 mL/h feed rate, 20 cm tip-to-collector distance | Fibrous membranes with a thickness of 30 ± 2 μm | Hydrostatic pressure (108 × 103 Pa) | Various applications (e.g., protective clothing) | [93] |
| PU, FPU | LiCl, DMAc ionic liquid | Lithium chloride (LiCl) | 14 wt% PU, 1.75 wt% FPU, 0.006 wt% LiCl, 50 kV voltage, 3 mL/h feed rate, 20 cm tip-to-collector distance | Fibrous membranes with a thickness of 20 ± 2 μm | Hydrostatic pressure (82.1 × 103 Pa) | Various applications (e.g., protective clothing) | [92] |
| PU, C6FPU | N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) | Lithium chloride (LiCl) | 12 wt% PU, 1.8 wt% C6FPU, 0.004 wt% LiCl, 50 kV voltage, 5 mL/h feed rate, 20 cm tip-to-collector distance, 680 rpm rotating speed | Fibrous membranes with an average fiber diameter of 421 μm and thickness of 19.2 μm | Hydrostatic pressure (88.2 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (142.6°) | Protective clothing | [106] |
| PU, FPU | DMF | - | 4 wt% PU, 0.5 wt% FPU, 20 kV voltage, 2 mL/h feed rate, 15 cm tip-to-collector distance | Microfibrous membranes with a thickness of 30 ± 2 μm and an average fiber diameter of 995 nm | Hydrophobicity (water contact angle of 156°) Oleophobicity (oil contact angle of 145°) | Protective clothing, bioseparation, membrane distillation, tissue engineering | [88] |
| PU | Water | Silicon dioxide (SiO2), PU emulsion, 4,4′-methylenebis-(phenyl isocyanate) (4,4′-MDI) and 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES), triethylamine (TEA, AR) (VTEOS:VEtOH:Vwater = 1:4:2) | 16% PU emulsion, 0.4 wt% 4,4′-MDI, 2 wt% APTES, 25 kV voltage, 2 mL/min feed rate, 23 cm tip-to-collector | Superhydrophobic membranes with an average fiber diameter of 245 nm | Hydrostatic pressure (8.02 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (154°) | Waterproof materials | [9] |
| PU | Tetraethoxysilane (TEOS):acetic acid (1:2 w/w) | Hydrophobic SiO2 SNPs | 8.2 wt% PU, 5 wt% SNP, 14 kV voltage, 0.2 mL/h feed rate, 18 cm tip-to-collector distance | Superhydrophobic webs | Static contact angle (151.3 ± 5.9), shedding angle (32.6 ± 1.7) | Textile laminate materials | [85] |
| PU | DMF:BuAc (4:6 v/v) | Superhydrophobic silica NPs (SSNPs), Tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) | 18 wt% PU, 9 wt% SSNPs relative to the PU concentration, 6 wt% TEOS, 12 kV voltage, 0.6 mL/h feed rate, 100 rpm rotating rate | Hydrophobic nanofibrous webs | Hydrostatic pressure (23.5 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (139°) | Various applications | [95] |
| PU | N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) | Hydrophobic silica gel (HSG) | 18 wt% PU/HSG, 3 wt% HSG with respect to the polymer PU, 15 kV voltage, 0.6 mL/h feed rate, 20 cm tip-to-collector distance, 300 rpm rotating rate of the collector | Fibrous membranes with an average diameter of 331 nm | Hydrostatic pressure (5.45 × 103 Pa), contact angle (~142°) | Various applications (protective clothing, water purification, and tissue engineering) | [80] |
| Waterborne PU (WPU) | Water | Polycarbodiimide (PCD) and long-chain alkyl polymer (LAP) emulsions (PCE and LAE), PEO | 9 wt% PCE, 15 wt% LAE, 40 kV voltage, 4 mL/h feed rate, 22 cm tip-to-collector | Fluorine-free nanofibrous membranes with an average fiber diameter of 548 nm and thickness of 150 ± 5 μm | Hydrostatic pressure (35.9 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (137.1°) | Green and high-performance fibrous materials used for medical hygiene, wearable electronics, water desalination, and oil/water separation | [8] |
| Waterborne PU (WPU) | Water | Trimethylolpropane tris (2-methyl-1-aziridine propionate) (TTMA), PEO, Water-based fluoropolymer emulsions (WPE) | 35 wt% PU solid content in emulsion, 0.6 wt% PEO, 3 wt% TTMA, 22 wt% WPE, 30 kV voltage, 2 mL/h feed rate, 22 cm tip-to-collector, 50 rpm roller speed | Nanofibrous membranes with an average fiber diameter of 680 nm | Hydrostatic pressure (76.9 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (143.4°) | Medical hygiene, wearable electronics, and outdoor clothing | [97] |
| Silicon-based PU (SiPU), PMMA | DMAC:acetone (4:6 v/v) | Octadecanethiol (thiol), 2, 4, 6, 8-tetramethyl-2, 4, 6, 8-tetra-vinylcyclotetrasiloxane (TMTVSi) | 13 wt% Si-PU/PMMA, 20 wt% TMTVSi, 30 wt% thiol, 25 kV voltage, 0.08 mL/min feed rate, 18 cm tip-to-collector | Nanofibrous membranes with an average fiber diameter of ~470 nm | Hydrostatic pressure (64.43 × 103 Pa), Water contact angle (131°) | Protective garments and oil–water separation | [99] |
| Siliceous PU (SIPU) | DMAC:acetone (2:3 v/v) | Stearic acid (SA) | 11 wt% SIPU, 50 wt% SA, 25.5 kV voltage, 22 cm tip-to-collector | Nanofibrous membranes with a thickness of 60 ± 5 μm and average fiber diameter of 390 nm) | Hydrostatic pressure (87.5 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (~133°) | Outdoor protective clothing, medical clothing, intelligent clothing, and military products | [98] |
| PU, PAN | N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) | TiO2 NPs, fluorinated acrylic copolymer (FAC) | 10 wt% PAN/PU (8/2 mass ratio), 1 wt% TiO2 NPs, 2 wt% FAC, 30 kV voltage, 1 mL/h feed rate, 20 cm tip-to-collector distance | Nanofibrous membranes with an average diameter of ~350 nm | Hydrostatic pressure (62 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (152.1°) | High-altitude garments, protective clothing, covering materials, self-cleaning materials, and other medical products, etc. | [102] |
| FPU | DMF:THF (1:2 w/w) | SiO2 NPs | FPU 18 wt%, SiO2 1 wt%, 18 kV voltage, 0.5 mL/h feed rate, 15 cm tip-to-collector distance | Superamphiphobic nanofibrous membranes with an average fiber diameter of 915 nm and thickness of 50 μm | The membranes could load 1.5 kg water and oil (olive oil) superhydrophobicity (water contact angle of 165°) and superoleophobicity (oil contact angle of 151°) | Protective clothing, bioseparation, water purification, tissue engineering, microfluidic systems, etc. | [83] |
| PU | N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) | PU elastomer (C4FPU), AgNO3 | 2% C4FPU solution, 0.015 wt% AgNO3, 45 kV voltage, 2 mL/h feed rate, 22 cm tip-to-collector distance | Fibers with a diameter of 641 nm | Hydrostatic pressure (102.8 × 103 Pa) | Protective textiles | [96] |
| Ethanol-soluble PU (EPU), FPU | Ethanol | 8 wt% FPU, 1:8 w/w FPU/EPU, 11 kV voltage, 1.5 mL/h feed rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance | Nanofibrous membranes with a thickness of 20 ± 2 μm and an average fiber diameter of 249 nm | Hydrostatic pressure (4.95 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (~144°) | Wound dressings, flexible electronic sensors | [94] | |
| Silicon-based PU (SiPU) | N, N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc):acetone (6:4), | PMMA, Polyvinyl butyral (PVB), Lithium chloride (LiCl) | 13 wt% Si-PU and PMMA, 7:3 (w/w) Si-PU/PMMA, 0.01 wt% LiCl, 40 wt% PVB, 25 kV voltage, 0.48 cm h−1 feed rate, 18 cm tip-to-collector, 80 °C temperature heat treatment | Nanofiber membrane | Hydrostatic pressure (65.29 × 103 Pa), water contact angle (139°) | Protective clothing, outdoor equipment, and high-altitude garment | [100] |
| PVA | Water | Zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs | 10% by weight PVA, 9% by weight ZnO, 14 kV voltage, 12 cm tip-to-collector | Nanofibers | Water contact angle (118°) | Medical surgeon | [44] |
| PCL | Formic acid:acetic acid (7:3 v/v) | 20 wt% PCL, 24 kV voltage, 0.77 mL/h feed rate, 15 cm tip-to-collector | Nanofibers with a diameter of 119.1 ± 24.6 nm | Water contact angle (140.5°) | Health products (wound healing, wound dressings for burn injuries) | [53] |